The Origins of Alcohol in Ancient China

The story of alcohol prohibition begins with the very invention of alcohol itself. China holds the distinction of being the earliest civilization to produce alcoholic beverages, with legends dating back to mythical times. Two competing narratives emerge from ancient texts about alcohol’s discovery.

The first attributes the invention to Du Kang, a legendary figure so closely associated with brewing that his name became synonymous with wine. This connection was immortalized by the warlord Cao Cao in his famous poem: “How to relieve melancholy? Only Du Kang.” By the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE), “Du Kang” had firmly entered the Chinese lexicon as a poetic term for wine.

An alternative tradition credits a woman named Yi Di with alcohol’s creation. The Warring States period text “Strategies of the Warring States” records that Emperor Yao’s daughters ordered Yi Di to produce wine, which she presented to Emperor Yu. Upon tasting it, Yu made a prophetic declaration: “Future generations will surely have kingdoms destroyed because of this.” This moment represents history’s first recorded reaction to alcohol’s potential dangers.

Yu the Great’s Warning and Alcohol’s Early Consequences

Emperor Yu’s foresight proved tragically accurate. The Xia Dynasty (2070-1600 BCE), which Yu founded, eventually collapsed under the weight of its rulers’ drunken excesses. Historical accounts describe the last Xia king, Jie, constructing lavish pools filled with wine where thousands would drink like cattle. His successor dynasty, Shang, repeated the pattern – King Zhou allegedly created forests of meat hanging from trees where naked revelers engaged in week-long drinking orgies.

This cyclical pattern of alcohol-fueled dynastic collapse set the stage for China’s first formal prohibition laws. When the Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang in 1046 BCE, they initially allowed Shang descendants to maintain ceremonial rule. However, when these rulers rebelled with the help of their Zhou-appointed supervisors (the “Three Supervisors”), the Zhou court identified alcohol as a contributing factor to the betrayal.

The Zhou Dynasty’s Groundbreaking Alcohol Prohibition

In response, the Duke of Zhou and King Cheng created the “Jiugao” (Alcohol Announcement) around 1040 BCE – history’s first comprehensive prohibition law. Addressed to the newly appointed ruler of the former Shang territories, this remarkable document established principles that would influence Chinese alcohol policy for millennia.

The Jiugao established several key provisions:
1. Alcohol restriction to religious ceremonies only
2. Mandatory temperance during permitted drinking (“virtuous people don’t get drunk”)
3. Grain conservation measures limiting alcohol production
4. Death penalty for unauthorized group drinking

This early legal framework reveals two primary concerns: preventing alcohol-induced misgovernance and conserving food supplies during agricultural shortages. The Zhou rulers etched these warnings into bronze ritual vessels like the famous Da Yu Ding, ensuring their preservation for posterity.

Prohibition in the Three Kingdoms Era

The collapse of the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) ushered in the Three Kingdoms period (220-280 CE), where competing warlords implemented varied alcohol policies reflecting their governance challenges.

Liu Bei, founding emperor of Shu Han, enacted strict prohibition to conserve military supplies. A famous anecdote from the “Records of the Three Kingdoms” describes his advisor Jian Yong cleverly protesting excessive enforcement. When Liu Bei punished a family merely for possessing brewing equipment, Jian Yong pointed to a passing couple, accusing them of intending adultery because they possessed the “equipment” for it. This humorous analogy convinced Liu Bei to moderate his policies.

Meanwhile, rival warlord Cao Cao faced more intellectual opposition to his prohibition edicts. Kong Rong, a descendant of Confucius and noted alcoholic, penned eloquent critiques including his famous “Essay Against Alcohol Prohibition.” His arguments – citing alcohol’s role in historical triumphs and cosmic significance (like the Wine Star constellation) – forced Cao Cao into a rare rhetorical retreat, though Kong Rong ultimately paid with his life for his defiance.

The Economics of Prohibition: State Monopolies vs. Taxation

Beyond moral concerns, Chinese rulers quickly recognized alcohol’s fiscal potential. As early as the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE), statesman Shang Yang imposed 1000% taxes on alcohol, making it prohibitively expensive. This established the template for two competing systems:

1. Quejiu (State Monopoly): Implemented by Emperor Wu of Han in 98 BCE to fund military campaigns, this system banned private production entirely. The government controlled all brewing and sales, creating a significant revenue stream.

2. Shuijiu (Taxation System): Allowed private production with heavy taxation. This alternated with state monopolies throughout Chinese history, often depending on government financial needs.

The Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) initially abolished restrictions during prosperous times, enabling the flourishing drinking culture that produced legendary poets like Li Bai. However, the An Lushan Rebellion (755-763 CE) forced reimplementation of state monopolies, which persisted through subsequent dynasties.

Ming and Qing Dynasty Prohibition Efforts

The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE) saw one of history’s most extreme prohibition attempts. Founding emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, concerned about grain shortages, banned糯米 (glutinous rice) cultivation – attacking alcohol production at its agricultural roots. His brutal enforcement included executing the son of a general mid-campaign for violations. Yet like most prohibitions, this proved unsustainable after his death.

Qing Dynasty (1636-1912 CE) debates reflected more nuanced policymaking. In 1736, scholar Fang Bao proposed banning alcohol across five northern provinces, citing both economic waste and alcohol-related crime (accounting for 20-30% of capital cases). After extensive deliberation, Emperor Qianlong implemented targeted restrictions rather than blanket prohibition – prohibiting large-scale production while allowing limited traditional brewing.

The Cultural Legacy of China’s Alcohol Restrictions

China’s four-millennia experience with alcohol regulation offers enduring lessons:
1. Cyclical Nature: Prohibition efforts consistently alternated with periods of liberalization, suggesting inherent challenges in long-term enforcement.
2. Economic Factors: Nearly all successful restrictions occurred during resource scarcity, while prosperity correlated with relaxed policies.
3. Cultural Entrenchment: Alcohol’s deep cultural significance (from poetry to medicine) made complete prohibition impractical.
4. Enforcement Challenges: From Zhou Dynasty capital punishments to Ming Dynasty agricultural bans, extreme measures consistently failed to eradicate drinking.

Modern parallels abound, from America’s 1920s Prohibition to contemporary debates over substance regulation. China’s ancient experiments remind us that alcohol policy requires balancing cultural traditions, economic realities, and public health concerns – a challenge as relevant today as in Emperor Yu’s time.