The Gathering Storm: Xinjiang on the Brink

In the mid-19th century, as the Qing dynasty struggled with internal rebellions and external pressures, its vast northwestern territory of Xinjiang teetered on the edge of permanent separation. Originally known as the Western Regions, this area had been gradually incorporated into the empire through military campaigns spanning the reigns of Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong emperors, earning its new name meaning “New Frontier.” Under stable Qing administration, Xinjiang had flourished as a commercial crossroads, with trade routes connecting it to Mongolia and northern China.

However, the decline of imperial authority following the Opium Wars and the devastating Taiping Rebellion created conditions for unrest. In 1864, Muslim uprisings erupted across Xinjiang, leading to the establishment of several independent regimes in cities like Kashgar, Khotan, and Turpan. Amid this chaos, a local leader in Kashgar made the fateful decision to invite Yakub Beg, a military commander from the neighboring Kokand Khanate, for assistance—an act that would prove disastrous for Chinese sovereignty.

The Rise of Yakub Beg and International Intrigue

Yakub Beg proved far more ambitious than his hosts anticipated. By 1867, he had established the Kashgarian Khanate (also called Yettishar), unifying southern Xinjiang under his rule and eventually controlling the entire region by 1871. What made Yakub Beg’s regime particularly dangerous was its recognition by foreign powers:

Britain, viewing Xinjiang as a potential buffer against Russian expansion, provided weapons and established diplomatic relations in 1868. Queen Victoria herself exchanged letters with Yakub Beg. Russia, never missing an opportunity to expand its Central Asian holdings, recognized the Kashgarian Khanate in 1870 and signed a formal treaty two years later. Even the Ottoman Empire granted religious legitimacy to Yakub Beg’s rule in 1870.

With 1.66 million square kilometers of territory at stake and multiple foreign powers legitimizing the breakaway state, Xinjiang’s permanent separation seemed imminent. The situation demanded decisive action—and one aging statesman answered the call.

The Great Debate: Coastal Defense vs. Frontier Security

The question of whether to reclaim Xinjiang sparked one of the most consequential policy debates in late Qing history. In 1875, as the young Guangxu Emperor ascended the throne, two of China’s most prominent officials presented opposing visions:

Li Hongzhang, the influential Governor-General of Zhili and architect of China’s naval modernization, argued passionately for prioritizing coastal defense against Japan. His memorial famously dismissed Xinjiang as “barren wasteland” whose recovery would drain resources better spent on naval development. Zuo Zongtang, the veteran Governor-General of Shaanxi and Gansu, countered with an equally compelling case. His detailed memorial highlighted Xinjiang’s strategic value and economic potential, warning that Russian expansion would threaten all of northern China if Xinjiang were abandoned.

The court initially leaned toward Li’s position until Empress Dowager Cixi ultimately sided with Zuo. Several factors influenced her decision: the sheer scale of territory at stake, Zuo’s reputation for integrity, and the Qing’s traditional concern about maintaining control over frontier regions. With imperial approval secured in May 1875, the 63-year-old Zuo began preparations for what would become his greatest military campaign.

Military Genius: Zuo’s Unconventional Preparations

Facing enormous logistical challenges—Xinjiang’s vast distances, limited infrastructure, and hostile terrain—Zuo implemented a strategy he called “slow advance, quick resolution.” His preparations demonstrated remarkable attention to detail:

Rather than massing troops, he carefully selected 60,000 elite soldiers, dismissing unwilling conscripts with travel funds. He conducted meticulous supply calculations, accounting for everything from daily grain rations per soldier to the most cost-effective transport methods (comparing camels, donkeys, and carts). His final budget request of 10 million taels of silver included provisions for unexpected expenses—half from the depleted imperial treasury and half through foreign loans arranged by merchant Hu Xueyan.

Zuo’s forces were exceptionally well-equipped with advanced European weaponry, including German Mauser M1871 rifles and American Remington Model 1s. When a Russian military delegation observed his troops in 1875, they concluded Yakub Beg’s forces stood little chance against such a professional army.

The Northern Campaign: A Masterclass in Military Strategy

In May 1876, Zuo’s forces entered Xinjiang through Hami, implementing his “secure the north first” strategy. Several factors contributed to their rapid success:

Yakub Beg’s unpopular regime had alienated local populations through heavy taxation and favoritism toward foreign officials. Zuo’s policy of leniency toward surrendering forces encouraged defections. Superior Qing firepower and tactics overwhelmed Yakub Beg’s forces in battle after battle.

Within ten months, Qing forces had shattered Yakub Beg’s defenses and secured northern Xinjiang. The campaign culminated in Yakub Beg’s mysterious death in May 1877—whether by suicide, poisoning, or illness remains debated. By January 1878, all of Xinjiang except Russian-occupied Ili had been reclaimed. British observers praised the campaign as China’s most impressive military achievement since the Qianlong era.

The Ili Crisis: Diplomacy Backed by Force

The final challenge came in reclaiming Ili, which Russia had occupied in 1871 during Xinjiang’s turmoil. Initial negotiations led to the disastrous Treaty of Livadia (1879), where envoy Chonghou conceded most of Ili’s territory without authorization. When the furious court sentenced Chonghou to death and dispatched diplomat Zeng Jize (son of Zeng Guofan) to renegotiate, Zuo provided crucial military backing.

In a dramatic show of determination, the 68-year-old Zuo marched toward Ili with 40,000 troops in 1880, famously bringing his own coffin to symbolize his readiness to die for the cause. Facing this display of resolve and still recovering from the Russo-Turkish War, Russia agreed to revised terms in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881), returning most of Ili in exchange for increased indemnities and minor territorial concessions.

Legacy: From Military Campaign to Provincial Status

Zuo’s vision extended beyond military conquest. His troops planted thousands of trees—the famed “Zuo’s Willows”—along their routes, creating shade and stabilizing the soil. In 1884, largely due to his persistent advocacy, Xinjiang became a formal province, cementing its administrative integration with China proper.

The campaign’s success marked a rare bright spot in the late Qing’s decline. Zuo’s combination of strategic vision, logistical brilliance, and personal integrity set him apart among his contemporaries. Unlike many Qing officials, he left only modest personal wealth at his death in 1885, having devoted his resources to state service.

The Lasting Significance of Xinjiang’s Reclamation

Zuo Zongtang’s Xinjiang campaign holds enduring relevance for several reasons:

It preserved one-sixth of China’s modern territory at a time when imperial disintegration seemed inevitable. The provincial system established in 1884 created administrative structures that endure today. Zuo’s emphasis on economic development and environmental stewardship (through initiatives like tree planting) offered a model for sustainable frontier governance.

Historians continue debating whether Zuo’s approach could have been applied more broadly to strengthen the Qing against foreign encroachment. While his stubborn personality might have limited his political effectiveness in peacetime, the Xinjiang campaign stands as testament to what determined leadership could achieve even during national decline—a lesson with resonance far beyond its historical moment.