The Road to Nanjing: A Capital in Peril

The autumn of 1937 found China at a crossroads. Following the devastating three-month Battle of Shanghai, Japanese forces pressed westward toward the ancient capital of Nanjing with alarming speed. The Chinese government’s November 20 declaration moving the capital to Chongqing stunned Japanese commanders who had anticipated a quick victory through the capture of China’s political heart.

This strategic relocation signaled China’s determination for prolonged resistance, but it left Nanjing – the Ming dynasty’s former capital and site of Sun Yat-sen’s mausoleum – facing an existential threat. Japanese field commanders, intoxicated by their Shanghai victory, raced toward Nanjing without waiting for formal orders from Tokyo. By late November, two competing Japanese army groups vied for the honor of capturing the city first, their rivalry fueling an increasingly brutal campaign.

The Fateful Decision: To Defend or Abandon?

In Nanjing’s tense war councils, China’s military leaders faced an impossible choice. General Li Zongren, the pragmatic Fifth Theater commander, argued forcefully against defending what he called a “death ground” – surrounded on three sides by enemy forces and backed against the Yangtze River. His assessment of demoralized troops and inadequate fortifications found support from both the brilliant strategist Bai Chongxi and Chiang Kai-shek’s trusted lieutenant Chen Cheng.

Yet when Tang Shengzhi, the Buddhist general with a checkered history of opposing Chiang, unexpectedly advocated for a symbolic defense to maintain international prestige and honor Sun Yat-sen’s legacy, Chiang seized the opportunity. On December 1, 1937, Tang received command of approximately 80,000 battle-weary troops – many still recovering from Shanghai’s horrors – to defend against Japan’s 100,000-strong assault force equipped with overwhelming artillery and air superiority.

The Siege Begins: Valor Against Overwhelming Odds

December 7 dawned with Japanese forces launching coordinated attacks on Nanjing’s outer defenses. The disparity in firepower became immediately apparent as Japanese 240mm howitzers – capable of firing 200kg shells – reduced Chinese positions to rubble. Yet amidst this devastation emerged extraordinary acts of courage:

At Chunhua Town, the elite 74th Army’s 51st Division under Wang Yaowu launched counterattacks so fierce they forced Japanese reinforcements. Nearby, the 58th Division’s commander Feng Shengfa sat resplendent in dress uniform at his headquarters, vowing to earn even his enemies’ respect in death. Their rare anti-tank guns destroyed five Japanese tanks in a single engagement.

The December 10 battle for Guanghua Gate became emblematic of the defenders’ tenacity. After Japanese troops breached the gate, the 87th Division fought eight brutal hours to seal the gap. That night, defenders discovered Japanese soldiers hiding in the gatehouse and incinerated them with gasoline – a grim preview of the urban warfare to come.

The Breaking Point: Collapse and Retreat

By December 11, the situation grew desperate. Japanese forces penetrated multiple sectors while their 120mm guns fired poison gas shells against defenders on Purple Mountain – the elite Central Military Academy Training Corps who fought to the last with bayonets when ammunition ran low. That afternoon, Chiang Kai-shek’s withdrawal order reached Tang, setting the stage for one of history’s most disastrous retreats.

The December 12 collapse revealed fatal flaws in command. While the original plan called for orderly withdrawals through multiple routes, Tang’s secret oral orders allowing Chiang’s favored units to use the sole remaining escape route at Xiaguan created chaos. Units abandoned positions prematurely; commanders fled without informing subordinates. The bottleneck at Yijiang Gate turned deadly as panicked soldiers trampled their own officers, including the heroic Guanghua Gate defender Xie Chengrui.

At the riverfront, the promised evacuation fleet never materialized. Thousands drowned attempting to swim the Yangtze or became target practice for Japanese warships. Those who surrendered would soon face even grimmer fates as Japan’s Prince Yasuhiko issued secret orders to execute all prisoners.

Legacy of the Fallen: Remembering Nanjing’s Defenders

The conventional narrative of Nanjing’s capture often overlooks the six days of fierce resistance that preceded the atrocities. While tactical failures and command breakdowns undoubtedly occurred, the defenders’ initial stand delayed Japanese forces and demonstrated that China would not surrender without fighting. The 74th Army’s stubborn defense at Chunhua, the Training Corps’ last stand on Purple Mountain, and the anonymous soldiers who turned back to face Japanese troops pouring through the breached walls – these episodes complicate the simplistic notion of passive surrender.

Modern scholarship continues reassessing Nanjing’s defense, recognizing that while the campaign ended in tragedy, it represented neither cowardice nor complete military failure. The defenders’ sacrifice, however ultimately futile, forms an essential prologue to understanding the full scope of Nanjing’s suffering – not as passive victims, but as warriors who fought until the situation became hopeless. Their story, long overshadowed by subsequent horrors, deserves remembrance as part of Nanjing’s complex historical tapestry.