The Decline of Ottoman Supremacy

The death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566 marked the end of an era for the Ottoman Empire. Over the following century, the empire faced internal instability while its expansion into Europe ground to a halt. Yet, paradoxically, this period also saw the Ottomans spared from major counterattacks by European powers. Europe itself was embroiled in religious and political conflicts—first the Counter-Reformation, then the devastating Thirty Years’ War. These divisions left European states preoccupied with internal struggles, some even seeking Ottoman military assistance. However, the Ottomans, neither willing nor capable of providing such aid, entered a phase of diplomatic recalibration with Christian Europe.

The Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606 became the first major signal of this shift. Signed on the Hungarian frontier between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs, it represented a stark departure from past Ottoman diplomatic practices.

A Diplomatic Revolution: The Treaty of Zsitvatorok

Previously, Ottoman sultans had dictated peace terms from a position of superiority, often imposing short-term truces rather than negotiating as equals. The language of earlier treaties had been deliberately humiliating—referring to the Habsburg emperor as the “King of Vienna” rather than acknowledging his imperial title. The Treaty of Zsitvatorok, however, marked a seismic change:

– Recognition of Equality: For the first time, the sultan addressed the Habsburg ruler as “Emperor,” signaling a grudging acceptance of European diplomatic norms.
– End of Tribute: The annual tribute paid by Austria was abolished, replaced by a one-time payment and later by an exchange of gifts every three years.
– Territorial Adjustments: While the Ottomans retained key fortresses like Eger and Kanizsa, they conceded minor territorial losses, reflecting their diminished expansionist momentum.
– Long-Term Peace: Unlike previous short-lived truces, this treaty was set for 20 years but effectively lasted 50, ushering in an era of relative stability.

The treaty was a bitter pill for Ottoman military elites, as it tacitly acknowledged the limits of Ottoman power and the rising influence of the Habsburgs.

The Ottoman Empire Opens to the West

The post-Suleiman era saw the Ottomans gradually abandon their isolationist stance. Previously, France had been their sole European ally, united by mutual opposition to the Habsburgs. Now, the empire began engaging more broadly with Western powers, seeking economic and diplomatic advantages.

### The Rise of Foreign “Millets”

The traditional millet system, which granted semi-autonomy to religious and ethnic communities within the empire, expanded to include foreign merchants. Through “capitulations” (trade agreements), European traders gained extraterritorial rights under their ambassadors’ jurisdiction. As historian Arnold Toynbee observed, the Ottomans viewed Western trading colonies much like their nomadic ancestors viewed oasis settlements—as sources of essential goods they could not produce themselves.

### France’s Privileged Position

Since 1535, France had enjoyed exclusive trade privileges under a bilateral agreement with Suleiman. In 1579, King Henry III strengthened this alliance by sending Baron de Germigny as ambassador to Istanbul. Germigny secured:
– Renewed trade concessions
– Precedence for French diplomats over other European envoys
– Protectorate rights over Christian holy sites and Ottoman Christians (excluding Venetians but including Genoese, English, and others).

However, the Ottomans, eager for new alliances, soon declared their “doors open to all seeking friendship”—a policy that would soon benefit England.

England’s Entry into Ottoman Diplomacy

England’s involvement in Ottoman affairs was driven by both commerce and politics. By the late 16th century, English merchants sought direct access to Levantine trade, bypassing Venetian and Spanish-controlled routes. Meanwhile, Queen Elizabeth I saw the Ottomans as potential allies against Catholic Spain.

### William Harborne: England’s First Ambassador

In 1578, merchant-diplomat William Harborne arrived in Istanbul after an overland journey through Poland. Despite French opposition, he secured trade rights for English merchants, formalized in the 1580 Anglo-Ottoman agreement. Key terms included:
– Freedom to trade under the English flag (breaking France’s monopoly)
– Exemption from arbitrary taxes
– Consular jurisdiction over English disputes
– Protection for shipwrecked sailors

Harborne’s success infuriated the French, who lobbied furiously to revoke the concessions. However, Ottoman reliance on English arms supplies (including metal from melted Catholic idols) ensured the agreement held.

### The Levant Company and Diplomatic Rivalries

In 1581, the Levant Company was chartered, monopolizing English trade with the Ottomans. Harborne returned as England’s first official ambassador in 1582, greeted with cannon salutes and a 150-dish banquet. His gifts to Sultan Murad III included hunting dogs and a jeweled silver clock worth £500.

French and Venetian diplomats schemed against him, but Harborne outmaneuvered them. When the French ambassador protested, the grand vizier retorted, “Your noise is without reason—our empire welcomes all who seek peace.”

Cultural Exchanges and Unintended Consequences

The Anglo-Ottoman alliance had lasting cultural impacts:
– Tobacco and Coffee: Dutch traders introduced tobacco in the early 1600s, defying religious objections. Combined with coffee (introduced under Suleiman), these became staples of Ottoman leisure.
– Technological Gifts: Elizabeth I sent Sultan Mehmed III an elaborate mechanical organ, astonishing the court. English warships like the Hector also impressed Ottoman observers, though the empire failed to modernize its own navy.

Legacy: A Multipolar Mediterranean

By the early 17th century, the Ottomans were no longer the uncontested masters of Europe’s fate. The Treaty of Zsitvatorok had cemented a new balance of power, while commercial rivalries between England, France, and the Dutch reshaped Mediterranean trade.

As one observer noted, “The Ottomans decayed not from war with Spain, but from peace with it.” The empire’s once-unrivaled navy stagnated, and its diplomacy became increasingly entangled in European power struggles. Yet this era also laid the groundwork for globalization, as East and West negotiated not just borders, but the terms of mutual exchange.

The age of Suleiman’s conquests was over—but a new chapter of complex, often contentious interdependence had begun.