A Generation of Peace Amid European Turmoil

In the mid-18th century, while European powers engaged in near-constant warfare, the Ottoman Empire enjoyed an unusual period of relative peace that lasted nearly a generation. This respite came during a particularly turbulent era in European history, marked by the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and later the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763). The death of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1740 triggered a continental crisis as his daughter Maria Theresa struggled to maintain control of Habsburg territories against Prussian and French ambitions.

This European infighting created opportunities for Ottoman statesmen to pursue a policy of neutrality under Sultan Mahmud I (r. 1730-1754). France, positioning itself as the Ottomans’ protector, pressured Istanbul to intervene in Hungary as a counterbalance against Austria. French diplomats promised the entire Hungarian kingdom if the Ottomans would divert Austrian attention. However, Mahmud I resisted these entreaties, issuing public declarations urging Christian powers to cease hostilities and even offering to mediate – an ironic proposal from a Muslim ruler to warring Christian states.

The French Gambit and Ottoman Resistance

French efforts to draw the Ottomans into European conflicts persisted throughout the 1740s. They enlisted the help of the renegade Bonneval Pasha, a former Habsburg officer who had converted to Islam and entered Ottoman service. Despite French promises of pensions and permission to return to France, Bonneval failed to sway the sultan’s steadfast neutrality.

The Ottomans’ refusal to engage militarily culminated in their acceptance of Maria Theresa’s overtures, brokered by England, leading to “permanent” peace treaties with both Austria and Russia. This diplomatic achievement reflected a conscious Ottoman strategy to avoid entanglement in European wars while the empire addressed internal weaknesses that perceptive officials recognized but most of the ruling elite ignored.

The Illusions of Strength and Institutional Decay

Beneath the surface of this peaceful interlude, the Ottoman Empire suffered from profound structural problems. A dangerous complacency infected the ruling class, who clung to the belief that Ottoman institutions remained inherently superior to European systems despite mounting evidence to the contrary. Corruption spread through the bureaucracy as grand viziers came and went with alarming frequency.

The military, particularly the once-feared Janissary corps, had deteriorated significantly. Since Sultan Mehmed IV granted them exemption from import duties in the previous century, Janissaries increasingly focused on commercial ventures rather than military preparedness. Like other privileged groups, they preferred preserving their peacetime economic benefits over the uncertainties of war.

Reform Efforts Under Raghib Pasha

The death of Mahmud I in 1754 brought his brother Osman III to the throne, who continued the policy of neutrality during his brief three-year reign. The true architect of Ottoman policy during this transition was Grand Vizier Raghib Pasha, a rare reform-minded official who studied European sciences and admired Isaac Newton’s works.

Raghib implemented limited but significant reforms:
– Modernized armories and established artillery foundries
– Created engineering corps and began new ship construction
– Founded schools teaching mathematics, navigation, and military sciences
– Instituted regular military exercises for Janissaries and cavalry
– Reformed tax collection and provincial administration
– Revived an ambitious canal project linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean

In foreign policy, Raghib pursued balance-of-power diplomacy, signing a treaty with Prussia in 1761 to counterbalance Austrian and Russian influence. His pragmatic approach recognized the growing Russian threat while attempting to modernize Ottoman defenses gradually without disrupting the fragile social order.

The Advent of Mustafa III and Rising Tensions

The accession of Mustafa III in 1757 marked a shift toward more assertive Ottoman policies. Unlike his predecessors, Mustafa possessed the energetic temperament of early Ottoman conquerors. At his accession ceremony, he provocatively told Janissaries: “Comrades! I hope to drink this cup with you beneath the walls of Bendery next spring!”

However, Mustafa’s ambitions outpaced Ottoman military capabilities. His reign coincided with the rise of Catherine the Great in Russia (1762), whose expansionist policies directly threatened Ottoman interests. The first crisis emerged from the Polish succession following King Augustus III’s death in 1763. Catherine’s cynical alliance with Frederick the Great of Prussia led to the first partition of Poland in 1772 – an act Mustafa condemned but could not prevent.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774

Russian provocations finally forced Ottoman hands in 1768 when Russian troops violated Ottoman territory pursuing Polish rebels, massacring inhabitants at Balta. Outraged, Mustafa III imprisoned the Russian ambassador and declared war against Catherine’s expansionist regime.

The war revealed shocking Ottoman military deficiencies. French military advisor Baron de Tott discovered:
– Poorly constructed, obsolete warships that leaked dangerously
– Army officers lacking basic geographical knowledge
– Rampant corruption in supply systems
– Janissaries refusing to march on foot
– A general collapse of discipline and training

Despite these weaknesses, the Ottomans initially enjoyed success in 1773 under Grand Vizier Muhsinzade Pasha, who reformed army logistics and achieved victories in Bulgaria. However, Russian advantages in leadership, technology, and organization proved decisive. By 1774, Russian forces threatened to cross the Balkan mountains toward Istanbul, forcing the Ottomans to sue for peace.

The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and Its Consequences

The 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca marked a watershed in Ottoman-Russian relations with several critical provisions:
– Crimea gained nominal independence (a prelude to Russian annexation in 1783)
– Russia kept key fortresses like Kerch and Yenikale
– Russian ships gained access to the Black Sea
– Russia obtained the right to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman lands
– The Sultan’s religious authority over Crimean Muslims was recognized

This treaty established Russian influence in Ottoman internal affairs while removing the Black Sea’s status as an Ottoman lake. More ominously, it created the precedent for Russian intervention on behalf of Christian subjects – a justification for future expansion.

Catherine’s “Greek Project” and Ottoman Resilience

Undeterred by the peace settlement, Catherine pursued her ambitious “Greek Project” – a plan to partition Ottoman territories and place her grandson Constantine on the throne of a restored Byzantine Empire. Russian agents stirred revolts among Orthodox Christians while the navy demonstrated in the Mediterranean.

The Ottomans found an unlikely champion in the Algerian admiral Hassan Pasha, who reformed the navy and achieved some successes against the Russians. However, the military balance had shifted decisively. When war resumed in 1787 with Austria joining Russia, Ottoman forces suffered devastating defeats against brilliant Russian commanders like Suvorov, who captured key fortresses along the Black Sea coast.

European Intervention and the Changing Balance of Power

By 1790, the Ottoman predicament attracted growing European concern. Britain, Prussia, and the Netherlands formed a triple alliance to preserve the Ottoman Empire as a counterweight to Russian expansion. This diplomatic revolution reflected emerging recognition that unchecked Russian growth threatened the European balance of power.

The final settlement at Jassy in 1791 allowed Russia to keep Ochakov and territory between the Dniester and Bug rivers while returning other conquests. Catherine abandoned her Greek ambitions but achieved naval dominance in the Black Sea. Only her death in 1796 prevented further implementation of her anti-Ottoman plans.

Conclusion: The Ottoman Empire at the Crossroads

The half-century from 1740 to 1796 revealed the Ottoman Empire’s paradoxical position – maintaining territorial integrity through skillful diplomacy while falling dangerously behind European rivals militarily and technologically. The period showcased:
– The limits of Ottoman reform efforts
– Growing European interference in Ottoman affairs
– The emergence of Russia as an existential threat
– The beginnings of the “Eastern Question” that would dominate 19th-century diplomacy

As the French Revolution reshaped European politics, the Ottomans entered a new era where their survival would depend increasingly on great power rivalries rather than their own strength – a pattern that would continue until the empire’s dissolution after World War I. The generation of peace had been squandered, and the age of crisis had begun.