The Ottoman Empire at a Crossroads

By the late 19th century, the once-mighty Ottoman Empire found itself in a precarious position. Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who ascended the throne in 1876, inherited an empire burdened by debt, territorial losses, and increasing European interference. His reign would become defined by indecision, diplomatic miscalculations, and brutal repression—particularly in Egypt and Armenia.

The empire’s African territories, including Egypt and Tunisia, were slipping from Ottoman control. Tunisia fell under French protection in 1881, while Egypt—long considered the “jewel in the Ottoman crown”—faced financial collapse under the extravagant rule of Khedive Ismail Pasha. The empire’s inability to assert authority over these regions exposed its weakening grip on its periphery.

The Loss of Egypt: A Diplomatic Failure

Egypt’s financial crisis was symptomatic of broader imperial mismanagement. By 1876, both the Ottoman government and Khedive Ismail were bankrupt. A European-controlled debt commission took charge of Egypt’s finances, with British and French officials overseeing key ministries. When Ismail attempted to form an all-Egyptian cabinet in 1879, Britain and France pressured him to abdicate.

Abdul Hamid, misreading European intentions, hesitated. He viewed the crisis as a challenge to his sovereignty but failed to act decisively. Only after warnings from his Greek Christian foreign minister, Karatheodori Pasha, did the sultan depose Ismail in favor of his son, Tewfik. Yet this belated move did little to restore Ottoman influence.

In 1882, Egyptian nationalist officer Ahmed Arabi led a revolt against Tewfik’s pro-European government. Britain, despite initial reluctance, bombarded Alexandria and crushed Arabi’s forces at Tel-el-Kebir. Abdul Hamid, still hoping to reassert Ottoman authority, delayed signing a joint occupation agreement with Britain. By the time he acted, British troops had already secured control. Egypt, though nominally Ottoman, became a de facto British protectorate.

The Armenian Crisis and the Sultan’s Brutal Response

While Egypt slipped away, another crisis brewed in the empire’s eastern provinces. The Armenian Christian minority, long subjected to discrimination, began organizing nationalist and socialist movements in the 1880s. Groups like the Hunchak and Dashnak sought autonomy or independence, rejecting Ottoman oppression.

Abdul Hamid, paranoid about Christian uprisings, responded with calculated brutality. In 1891, he authorized the creation of the Hamidiye regiments—Kurdish tribal militias tasked with suppressing Armenians. State-sponsored massacres followed, particularly in 1894–1896. In Sasun, Urfa, and elsewhere, Ottoman troops and Kurdish irregulars slaughtered tens of thousands. The 1896 seizure of the Ottoman Bank by Armenian militants triggered further pogroms in Istanbul, leaving 6,000 dead.

European powers condemned the atrocities but took no decisive action. Britain’s Prime Minister Salisbury warned of consequences, yet no intervention came. The sultan’s divide-and-rule tactics—pitting Muslims against Christians—proved devastatingly effective.

Legacy of Repression and Decline

Abdul Hamid’s policies accelerated the empire’s fragmentation. His loss of Egypt marked the end of meaningful Ottoman influence in Africa, while the Armenian massacres stained his reputation as the “Red Sultan.” Though he clung to power until 1909, his reign exemplified imperial decline—hesitant in diplomacy, ruthless in repression.

The Armenian question remained unresolved, foreshadowing the genocide of 1915. Meanwhile, Egypt’s occupation set the stage for British dominance in the Middle East. Abdul Hamid’s failures underscored a harsh truth: in an age of European imperialism, the Ottoman Empire could neither reform nor resist effectively. His reign became a cautionary tale of autocracy’s limits and the perils of stagnation.