The Powder Keg of Late Joseon Korea
In the twilight years of Korea’s Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), a series of peasant uprisings erupted across the countryside, collectively remembered as the Donghak Peasant Revolution. These were not random acts of violence but desperate responses to systemic corruption that had reached unbearable levels. The southwestern Jeolla province, known as Korea’s breadbasket for its fertile lands, became the epicenter of discontent. Here, aristocratic officials appointed through nepotism rather than merit engaged in brazen exploitation, treating government positions as personal profit centers rather than public trusts.
The term “peasant uprising” (minran in Korean) fails to capture the complexity of these events. Villagers would collectively petition district offices when faced with intolerable abuses, with the first signatory known as the “petition leader” (jangdu). These protests remained localized, addressing specific grievances without broader coordination—until the Donghak movement transformed them into a revolutionary force.
The Spark in Gobu: When Taxation Became Tyranny
The 1893 uprising in Gobu County exemplified the injustices fueling popular rage. County chief Jo Byeong-gap implemented three particularly egregious policies:
1. The “Deficit Rice Tax” Scam: Officials demanded 40-50% more rice than legally required, inventing fictional losses from rats (“mouse shrinkage”) and moisture (“dry shrinkage”). Even after these illegal surcharges, embezzlement by tax collectors, transporters, and warehouse keepers left government granaries short, prompting a second round of illegal collections.
2. The Irrigation Water Tax: After conscripting farmers to build canals, officials audaciously charged them for using the water—a double exploitation that turned public works into private revenue streams.
3. The Firewood Tax: Even gathering deadwood from uncultivated land became taxable, demonstrating how every aspect of peasant life was monetized for official profit.
When farmers led by petition leaders Jeon Jang-hyeok, Kim Do-sam, and Jeong Il-se submitted formal complaints, the response was brutal imprisonment. Jeon died from torture, becoming a martyr whose death would later inspire his son, Jeon Bong-jun, to lead the revolution.
The Donghak Difference: From Local Grievances to National Movement
What transformed these isolated protests into a historic revolution was the involvement of the Donghak (Eastern Learning) movement. Founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u as a native Korean alternative to Western Christianity (“Western Learning”), Donghak blended Confucian ethics with egalitarian principles. Its adherents, often literate and politically aware, naturally emerged as community leaders during protests.
Unlike previous petition leaders who focused on specific local issues, Donghak activists like Jeon Bong-jun recognized the systemic nature of oppression. They articulated a vision connecting:
– Rampant corruption from Seoul’s royal court to provincial magistrates
– The threat of foreign imperialism (particularly Japanese encroachment)
– The collapse of Confucian social contracts between rulers and ruled
The White Mountain Manifesto: A Revolutionary Vision
On February 8, 1894 (Lunar New Year’s Day), Donghak leaders issued their historic “Call to Righteous Arms” from Baek Mountain. This remarkable document—more sophisticated than anything produced by earlier reformers—laid out their revolutionary platform:
1. Condemnation of Corruption: “Government offices have become markets where positions are bought and sold… massive bribes fill private coffers while national debts mount.”
2. Economic Justice: “The people, the foundation of the state, have been stripped of livelihoods and dignity by predatory officials.”
3. National Sovereignty: Explicit warnings about foreign powers exploiting Korea’s weakness.
4. Confucian Revolutionary Ethos: Framing rebellion not as defiance but as fulfilling the duty of loyal subjects to rescue the king from corrupt advisors.
Military Campaigns and Tragic Aftermath
The Donghak armies achieved stunning early successes:
– March 1894: Capture of Gobu without bloodshed, freeing prisoners and executing only the most corrupt officials
– April: Victory at Hwangto Pass against government troops
– May: Establishment of “Jipgangso” local administrations implementing land reforms and tax relief
However, the revolution’s success alarmed both the Joseon court and foreign powers. King Gojong requested Chinese intervention, giving Japan pretext to send its own troops—triggering the First Sino-Japanese War. By December 1894, combined Japanese and government forces crushed the Donghak armies. Jeon Bong-jun was captured and executed in March 1895, but not before delivering a final speech affirming his movement’s ideals: “We fought not for personal gain but to save our country and people.”
Legacy: Korea’s First Modern Revolution
The Donghak Revolution’s significance resonates through Korean history:
1. Blueprint for Modern Movements: Its blend of anti-corruption, anti-feudalism, and nationalism inspired later independence struggles against Japan.
2. Institutional Reforms: The Gabo Reforms (1894-96) adopted many Donghak demands, including:
– Abolition of class-based discrimination
– Modernized tax systems
– Local self-governance
3. Cultural Memory: Remembered as Korea’s first grassroots national movement, celebrated in literature, film, and annual memorials, particularly in Jeolla region.
4. Contemporary Relevance: The Donghak emphasis on moral governance and economic justice finds echoes in modern Korea’s democratization movements and ongoing debates about inequality.
Unlike typical peasant revolts that sought only localized redress, the Donghak Revolution articulated a comprehensive vision for national renewal—one that continues to inspire discussions about justice, governance, and popular sovereignty in Korea today. Its tragic suppression also serves as a cautionary tale about how internal dissent can become entangled with geopolitical rivalries, a dynamic that would shape Korea’s turbulent 20th century.