The Weakening of Tokugawa Authority

The death of Tokugawa Iemitsu in 1651 marked the beginning of the shogunate’s decline. His successor, Ietsuna, was young and weak, relying on advisors who gradually passed away, leaving power to fall into the hands of incompetent favorites. Natural disasters compounded the crisis—famine ravaged the countryside, and Edo suffered catastrophic fires that killed over 100,000 people and destroyed public and private wealth. The shogunate’s relief efforts, such as distributing gruel in pottery shards, were insufficient. Reconstruction burdens fell heavily on regional lords (daimyo), worsening peasant suffering. Banditry and secret societies flourished, while earthquakes and Ainu rebellions further destabilized the realm. When Ietsuna died childless, the shogunate controversially appointed Tsunayoshi, a daimyo’s heir, as shogun—breaking precedent and signaling weakening central authority.

The Eccentric Reign of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi

Tsunayoshi’s rule (1680–1709) was marked by erratic behavior and oppressive policies. Deeply influenced by Buddhist monks who blamed his lack of heirs on past-life violence, he enacted extreme animal protection laws. Dogs, especially (as he was born in the Year of the Dog), were safeguarded; harming one could condemn an entire village. Thousands of stray dogs were housed in state-funded kennels, while bans on meat consumption and bird-keeping sparked public resentment. Despite these excesses, Tsunayoshi promoted Confucianism, building a grand Confucian temple (“Daiseiden”) and lecturing on the Analects and Book of Changes. However, his lavish spending—such as staging elaborate rice-planting pageants with 300 costumed children—drained finances. Currency debasement (mixing gold with silver, silver with lead) triggered inflation, and corrupt officials eroded trust in governance.

Economic Collapse and Social Unrest

Natural disasters continued to plague Japan: Fuji’s eruption (1707) devastated farmland, while Edo’s fires and Kyoto’s inferno (1708) left the imperial family homeless. Tsunayoshi’s successor, Ienobu, briefly stabilized the regime by revoking unpopular edicts, but his early death returned power to infant shoguns and regents. By the 19th century, the shogunate was fiscally hollow, relying on outdated policies while regional daimyo grew restless. Meanwhile, Dutch traders at Dejima (Nagasaki) became Japan’s sole window to Europe, introducing Western medicine and geography—knowledge that subtly undermined isolationist dogma.

The Russian and Western Threat

Russia’s expansion into Siberia and the Kuril Islands alarmed Japan. In 1792 and 1804, Russian envoys demanded trade, but the shogunate refused. When British ships raided Nagasaki (1808) and American whalers drifted ashore, the shogunate reinforced its “expel all foreign ships” policy (Sakoku). However, daimyo like Tokugawa Nariaki warned that ignoring northern defenses risked losing Ezo (Hokkaido) to Russian encroachment.

Perry’s Arrival and the End of Isolation

In 1853, U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry’s “Black Ships” steamed into Edo Bay, demanding trade and coaling rights. His technologically superior fleet—featuring steam engines and Paixhans guns—overawed Japanese officials. Despite hardline opposition (notably from Nariaki, who cited China’s Opium War defeat as cautionary), the shogunate capitulated. The 1854 Convention of Kanagawa opened Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships, included a most-favored-nation clause, and granted extraterritoriality—setting a template for unequal treaties with Britain, Russia, and France.

The Harris Treaty and Its Consequences

In 1858, U.S. Consul Townsend Harris leveraged the threat of British/French invasion (fresh from their victory in the Second Opium War) to force the Treaty of Amity and Commerce. It imposed:
1. Fixed Tariffs (5%): Locking Japan into low rates that stifled industrial growth.
2. Extraterritoriality: Foreigners in Japan were tried by their own consuls, not Japanese courts.
3. Additional Open Ports: Including Yokohama, eroding sovereignty.

The shogunate’s failure to secure imperial approval for the treaty exposed its fragility, emboldening anti-Tokugawa factions. By 1868, these tensions would erupt into the Meiji Restoration, ending 265 years of Tokugawa rule.

Legacy: From Crisis to Modernization

The Tokugawa decline underscored the perils of isolation. While its cultural patronage (Confucian academies, urban chōnin culture) left enduring marks, its inability to resist Western imperialism forced Japan’s rapid modernization. The unequal treaties’ humiliation fueled Meiji-era reforms, transforming Japan into an industrial power—a poignant legacy of the shogunate’s collapse.