The Collapse of Appeasement and Chamberlain’s Downfall

The spring of 1940 marked a turning point in British politics as public disillusionment with Neville Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement reached its peak. Once praised as the “peace-loving” leader who secured the Munich Agreement in 1938, Chamberlain now faced mounting criticism. The disastrous Norwegian campaign in April exposed Britain’s military unpreparedness, further eroding confidence in his government.

A critical vote of confidence in the House of Commons revealed the depth of parliamentary discontent. Chamberlain’s support plummeted from over 250 votes to a mere 81. Simultaneously, a May 9 opinion poll showed only 22% of Britons supported his continued leadership, while 58% opposed it. With his political capital exhausted and Germany launching its Western Offensive on May 10, Chamberlain had no choice but to resign.

Churchill Takes Command

At 6:30 PM on May 10, Winston Churchill—whose vigorous leadership as First Lord of the Admiralty had already captured public admiration—was summoned by King George VI to form a government. Remarkably, all three major parties (Conservative, Labour, and Liberal) agreed to join his wartime coalition.

By 10 PM that evening, Churchill had assembled his cabinet. The streamlined five-member War Cabinet included:
– Churchill as Prime Minister, First Lord of the Treasury, Minister of Defence, and Leader of the House of Commons
– Chamberlain as Lord President of the Council
– Clement Attlee as Deputy Prime Minister and Lord Privy Seal
– Lord Halifax as Foreign Secretary
– Arthur Greenwood as Minister without Portfolio

This cross-party unity gave Churchill the political foundation to confront Britain’s existential crisis.

Britain’s Desperate Mobilization

With Nazi forces massing across the Channel, Churchill initiated total mobilization. Key measures included:

### Military Preparations
– The Home Guard expanded to 1 million volunteers, with plans for 1.5 million
– Coastal “fire traps”—oil reservoirs to ignite invading fleets—were constructed along southern beaches
– Emergency aircraft production exceeded targets (1,418 built vs. 903 planned from June-August)
– Commonwealth troops from India and Australia reinforced home defenses

### The American Lifeline
Recognizing U.S. support as crucial, Churchill secured:
– 50 old destroyers in exchange for 99-year leases on eight British bases (September 1940)
– 500,000 rifles, 55,000 submachine guns, and 895 field guns by June

The Battle of Britain Begins

After conquering Western Europe by June 1940, Hitler expected Britain to surrender. Churchill’s defiant speeches and rejection of peace overtures forced Germany to prepare Operation Sea Lion—the planned invasion.

### The Luftwaffe’s Onslaught
Beginning July 10, the German air campaign evolved through phases:
1. Channel Battles (July-August): Targeting shipping and ports to lure RAF fighters
2. Eagle Attack (August 13-18): Concentrated strikes on RAF airfields and radar stations
3. The Blitz (September 7 onward): Terror bombing of London and other cities

Critical moments included:
– August 15: Largest single-day Luftwaffe effort—1,786 sorties
– September 7: First massive London raid—247 bombers reached the city
– September 15 (“Battle of Britain Day”): Decisive RAF victory, shooting down 56 German aircraft

Why Britain Prevailed

Several factors ensured British survival:
1. Radar and Command: The integrated Dowding System coordinated radar, observers, and fighter control
2. Home Advantage: RAF pilots shot down over Britain could return to combat
3. German Strategic Errors: Shifting targets from airfields to cities allowed RAF recovery
4. Industrial Output: British factories outproduced German losses (1,833 new fighters vs. 1,887 German losses from July-October)

Legacy: The Myth and the Reality

Churchill’s leadership during these months cemented his legend, but the victory was a collective achievement. The Battle of Britain:
– Marked Hitler’s first major defeat
– Proved air power alone couldn’t subdue a determined nation
– Kept Britain as the Allied “unsinkable aircraft carrier” for D-Day

As Churchill later reflected, the summer of 1940 was Britain’s finest hour—a moment when courage and resilience altered the course of history. The fall of Chamberlain and rise of Churchill demonstrated that in democracies, even at the brink of catastrophe, leadership can change and nations can rally.