The Fall and Rebirth of a Kingdom

In the ninth month of the second year of Emperor Er Shi’s reign (209 BCE), as the fires of rebellion spread across the crumbling Qin Empire, an extraordinary revival occurred in the eastern territories. The Qi kingdom, which had surrendered without resistance to Qin forces in 221 BCE, suddenly sprang back to life through the daring actions of three brothers from the Tian clan—Tian Dan, Tian Rong, and Tian Heng.

These descendants of Qi’s royal family seized the moment when Zhou Fu, a general under rebel leader Chen Sheng, approached Di County (modern Gaoqing, Shandong). Killing the Qin-appointed magistrate, they raised the banner of Qi’s restoration with Tian Dan proclaimed as king. This marked the beginning of what historians call the “Royal Restoration” period—a dramatic reversal of Qi’s humiliating surrender decades earlier when King Tian Jian had chosen appeasement over joining other states against Qin’s expansion.

Strategic Expansion and Alliances

The revived Qi state moved swiftly to reclaim its ancestral lands. Establishing their capital at Linzi—the historic heart of Qi power—they consolidated control over key commanderies including Jibei, Linzi, Jiaodong, and Langya. Geography favored their position: bordered by Zhao and Wei to the west, Chu to the south, and distant from Qin’s core territories in the west.

Unlike their pacifist predecessor, the new Qi leadership under Tian Dan pursued active cooperation with other anti-Qin forces. They cultivated strong ties with Zhao, even jointly supporting Zhou Fu’s bid to become King of Wei (though this ultimately failed when Zhou chose Wei royal descendant Wei Jiu instead). This collaborative approach reflected hard-learned lessons from Qi’s earlier isolationism that had led to its effortless conquest.

Crisis and Intervention

The strategic landscape shifted dramatically in late 209 BCE when Qin general Wang Li launched a devastating eastern campaign against Zhao. After rebel-turned-traitor Li Liang sacked Zhao’s capital Handan, killing King Wu Chen and chancellor Shao Sao, Qi faced direct threat from Qin forces with its western buffer gone.

Tian Dan responded decisively, dispatching general Tian Jian across the Yellow River to support Zhao’s remnants under Zhang Er and Chen Yu. This intervention proved crucial in reestablishing Zhao under King Xie at Xindu. Qi’s troops remained embedded with Zhao forces, creating a vital supply line through Julu that connected to Qi’s Jibei commandery via the Pingyuan crossing—a logistical lifeline that would prove essential during the coming showdown at Julu.

The Fracturing of Alliances

As the most powerful among rebel states following Chen Sheng’s death, Tian Dan assumed leadership of the anti-Qin coalition. However, his assertive diplomacy created tensions. When Chu general Qin Jia installed Jing Ju as King of Chu without consulting Qi, Tian Dan’s angry execution of Chu envoy Gongsun Qing poisoned relations between the two key rebel states.

The situation improved temporarily after Xiang Liang (uncle of future hegemon Xiang Yu) eliminated Jing Ju’s faction. But when Qin commander Zhang Han besieged Wei at Linji in 208 BCE, Tian Dan’s decision to personally lead Qi forces to Wei’s aid proved disastrous. The Qi army was crushed at Linji, with Tian Dan killed in action.

Internal Strife and Isolation

During the crisis, Qi’s political landscape fractured. While Tian Rong (Tian Dan’s brother) was besieged at Dong’e by Zhang Han’s forces, court officials back in Linzi crowned Tian Jia—a brother of the last pre-Qin Qi king—as the new ruler. After being rescued by Xiang Liang’s Chu forces at Dong’e, an enraged Tian Rong returned to overthrow Tian Jia, installing Tian Dan’s son Tian Fu as king while wielding power as chancellor.

This internal conflict had far-reaching consequences. When Xiang Liang requested Qi reinforcements to finish off Zhang Han at Puyang, Tian Rong demanded the executions of exiled rivals Tian Jia (in Chu) and Tian Jiao (in Zhao) as preconditions—terms both states refused. Isolated by his vendetta, Tian Rong withdrew Qi from the united anti-Qin front at this critical juncture.

The Road to Julu

The complex interplay between Qi and Chu came to a head through the figure of Song Yi. Originally dispatched by Xiang Liang to negotiate with Tian Rong, Song Yi gained favor with both Qi and Chu’s King Huai. His subsequent appointment as Chu commander—over Xiang Yu’s objections—created fatal divisions.

Song Yi’s prolonged inaction at Anyang (likely in modern Dongping, Shandong), coupled with his controversial decision to escort his son to Qi’s border for a ministerial post, provided Xiang Yu the pretext for his famous coup. Killing Song Yi in 207 BCE, Xiang Yu assumed command and marched north toward the decisive confrontation at Julu.

Crucially, Xiang Yu’s route took him through Qi territory via the Pingyuan crossing—the same path Qi forces had used to aid Zhao. Two Qi generals, Tian An (grandson of the last pre-Qin Qi king) and Tian Du (a defector from Tian Rong’s camp), facilitated this movement, underscoring Qi’s continued strategic importance despite Tian Rong’s political isolation.

Legacy of the Qi Restoration

The resurrected Qi state played an underappreciated role in the Qin collapse. Its early military support helped preserve Zhao as a viable anti-Qin force, while its territory provided the crucial corridor for Xiang Yu’s legendary “burning boats” crossing that led to victory at Julu. The Tian brothers’ story—from bold restoration to fatal internal divisions—also previewed the fratricidal conflicts that would characterize the Chu-Han contention period.

Modern reassessments, incorporating archaeological evidence like newly discovered pottery inscriptions, confirm Qi’s geographical centrality in these events. The Pingyuan crossing route through Qi territory, long overlooked in traditional accounts, emerges as the logical path for rebel movements—a testament to how regional dynamics shaped one of Chinese history’s most consequential revolutions.

The Qi restoration ultimately proved short-lived, unable to withstand the rising power of Han. Yet its brief resurgence during those turbulent years helped create the military and logistical conditions that made the Qin dynasty’s overthrow possible—a pivotal if often forgotten chapter in China’s dramatic transition from unified empire to renewed civil war.