The Ascent of Gongsun Hong: A New Era in Han Politics

In the winter of 124 BCE, a significant shift occurred in Han Dynasty politics when Gongsun Hong became Chancellor and was enfeoffed as Marquis of Pingjin. This marked the first time a chancellor received noble status after assuming office, breaking from previous traditions where nobility typically preceded such appointments. Emperor Wu, seeking to strengthen his administration, encouraged Gongsun Hong to establish a system for recruiting talented individuals to advise on state affairs.

Gongsun Hong’s controversial proposal to ban civilian possession of crossbows sparked intense debate at court. His argument that “even ten bandits with drawn bows could intimidate ordinary citizens” was effectively countered by Imperial Attendant Wuqiu Shouwang, who invoked historical precedent from the Qin Dynasty’s failed weapons ban. This episode revealed both the chancellor’s pragmatic approach to governance and the emperor’s willingness to entertain opposing viewpoints in policy discussions.

Wei Qing’s Military Triumphs and Rising Influence

The spring of 124 BCE saw drought conditions, followed by renewed Xiongnu incursions along the northern frontier. Emperor Wu dispatched General Wei Qing with 30,000 cavalry to counter the Right Virtuous King of the Xiongnu. In a daring nighttime operation covering over 600 li (approximately 250 kilometers), Wei Qing’s forces achieved complete surprise, capturing numerous Xiongnu nobles and vast herds of livestock.

This victory earned Wei Qing the prestigious title of Grand General, with all military commanders placed under his authority. His humble refusal of excessive rewards for his infant sons demonstrated political acumen, further endearing him to the emperor. The court dynamics surrounding Wei Qing revealed much about Han power structures – while most officials showed deference, the principled Ji An maintained equal standing, earning Wei Qing’s respect through his integrity.

Educational Reforms and Cultural Development

Responding to concerns about declining standards of ritual and music, Emperor Wu initiated significant educational reforms in June 124 BCE. Chancellor Gongsun Hong proposed establishing fifty official students under the Erudites, exempt from taxes and corvée labor. These students would be ranked by merit and appointed to various government positions, creating a pipeline for educated talent into the bureaucracy.

This system gradually transformed the character of Han officialdom, producing what Sima Qian described as “increasing numbers of refined scholars among high ministers and lower officials.” The reforms marked an important step in the professionalization of Han administration and the growing influence of Confucian-educated officials.

The Huainan and Hengshan Rebellion Plots

The ambitious Liu An, King of Huainan, and his brother Liu Ci, King of Hengshan, became embroiled in separate but interconnected rebellion plots. Liu An, influenced by his many retainers and encouraged by celestial omens, began military preparations as early as 135 BCE. His plans unraveled when a disgruntled former retainer, Lei Bei, exposed the conspiracy to imperial authorities.

The parallel plot by Liu Ci of Hengshan revealed the dysfunctional relationships within the imperial clan. Both kings ultimately committed suicide when their schemes collapsed, leading to widespread executions that decimated local elites in their territories. Historian Hua Shan’s commentary highlights the psychological factors behind these doomed rebellions – the kings’ inability to assess realistically their chances against imperial power.

Huo Qubing’s Meteoric Rise

The year 123 BCE witnessed the emergence of Huo Qubing, Wei Qing’s nephew, as a military prodigy. At just eighteen, his daring cavalry tactics and battlefield successes earned him the title Champion Marquis after capturing several Xiongnu nobles. His campaigns demonstrated a pattern of independent action and rapid movement that would characterize his career.

By 121 BCE, Huo Qubing had been promoted to Swift Cavalry General, leading successful campaigns deep into Xiongnu territory. His victories at the Qilian Mountains and capture of the Xiongnu’s golden religious statues significantly weakened northern resistance. These achievements began shifting the military balance in the Han’s favor while elevating Huo Qubing’s status to rival his uncle Wei Qing.

Administrative Reforms and Economic Measures

Facing severe financial strain from continuous warfare, Emperor Wu implemented controversial economic policies in 119 BCE. These included:

1. A new currency system featuring white deer skin notes worth 400,000 coins
2. Three grades of silver-tin alloy coins with different animal motifs
3. Strict prohibitions on private minting and salt production
4. A comprehensive property tax system (the “calculation levy”)

These measures, largely designed by Minister Zhang Tang, aimed to replenish depleted state coffers but placed heavy burdens on merchants and commoners alike. The recruitment of former merchants like Dongguo Xianyang and Kong Jin to oversee these reforms demonstrated the emperor’s pragmatic approach to financial administration.

The Decisive Campaigns of 119 BCE

Emperor Wu launched his most ambitious Xiongnu campaign yet, sending both Wei Qing and Huo Qubing with 100,000 cavalry each. The strategy involved crossing the Gobi Desert to surprise the Xiongnu at their northern bases. While Wei Qing engaged the Chanyu’s main force, Huo Qubing achieved spectacular success in the east, advancing over 2,000 li and conducting imperial sacrifices at sacred Xiongnu mountains.

These campaigns, though costly in men and horses (only 30,000 of 140,000 horses returned), effectively cleared the Xiongnu from the southern Gobi region. The establishment of military-agricultural colonies in conquered territories marked the beginning of permanent Han control over these frontier regions.

The Human Costs of Expansion

The campaigns exacted heavy tolls, including the tragic death of veteran general Li Guang. After being reassigned to a flanking route and getting lost, the humiliated general chose suicide over facing interrogation. His death prompted widespread mourning among soldiers and civilians alike, reflecting his legendary status as a soldier’s general who shared hardships with his troops.

On the home front, harsh governance under officials like Wang Wenshu created climates of fear in commanderies. Wang’s brutal methods – executing hundreds to establish order – earned imperial approval despite their terrorizing effects on local populations. Such measures reflected the increasingly authoritarian tendencies of Emperor Wu’s middle reign period.

Spiritual Pursuits and Their Discontents

Emperor Wu’s interest in supernatural matters led to the rise of figures like Shao Weng, a spiritualist who claimed to summon spirits. After initial success in conjuring the image of a deceased concubine, Shao Weng’s fraud was exposed when the emperor recognized his handwriting on a “magically” discovered text. The execution was kept quiet, revealing both the emperor’s engagement with spiritual matters and his embarrassment at being deceived.

Conclusion: The Contradictions of Emperor Wu’s Reign

This period of Emperor Wu’s reign (124-119 BCE) showcased the dynamic yet contradictory nature of his rule. Military expansion reached new heights through brilliant commanders like Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, while domestic policies alternated between enlightened reforms and oppressive measures. The emperor’s simultaneous pursuit of Confucian governance, military glory, economic control, and spiritual fulfillment created tensions that would characterize the remainder of his long reign. These years established patterns of administration and frontier policy that would shape Chinese history for centuries to come.