The Fragile Transition of Power in Early Western Han

The early years of Emperor Xuan’s reign (74-49 BCE) represented one of the most politically volatile periods in Western Han history. Following the controversial reign and abrupt dismissal of Emperor Zhao’s successor after just 27 days, the Han court found itself in desperate need of stability. The young Emperor Xuan, born Liu Bingyi, emerged as an unlikely candidate from relative obscurity, his humble origins contrasting sharply with the imperial pomp he would later adopt.

This era witnessed the culmination of decades-long power struggles between different court factions. The most dramatic confrontation occurred between two powerful ministers – Shangguan Jie and Huo Guang. When Huo Guang ultimately triumphed and executed Shangguan Jie, he implemented strict legalist policies inherited from Emperor Wu’s reign. These harsh measures created an atmosphere where officials competed to demonstrate their severity, with one notable exception – Huang Ba, the governor of Henan, who gained renown for his lenient approach.

The Corruption Scandal That Shook the Court

In 72 BCE, a major corruption scandal erupted that tested the limits of Huo Guang’s authority. Tian Yannian, the Minister of Agriculture, stood accused of embezzling thirty million cash by falsifying records for funeral vehicles used during Emperor Zhao’s burial. The case revealed the complex web of loyalties and moral compromises at court:

– Huo Guang initially attempted to protect Tian due to his crucial role in deposing the previous emperor
– Tian’s stubborn refusal to confess forced Huo to authorize a full investigation
– The minister ultimately chose suicide over public humiliation, dramatically ending his life when imperial envoys came to arrest him

This incident demonstrated both the prevalence of corruption and the limits of even Huo Guang’s power to shield his allies from justice.

The Controversial Legacy of Emperor Wu

Emperor Xuan’s attempt to honor his predecessor Emperor Wu with temple music in 72 BCE sparked one of the most remarkable displays of intellectual courage in Han history. While most officials supported the proposal, the erudite Xiahou Sheng delivered a scathing critique:

“Emperor Wu may have expanded our borders, but at what cost? Troops perished in droves, state finances were exhausted, and common people suffered terribly. Famine spread across thousands of miles, reaching such desperation that people resorted to cannibalism. The population was halved. How can we claim he bestowed blessings upon the people?”

For this bold criticism, Xiahou Sheng and his supporter Huang Ba were imprisoned. Yet their imprisonment became legendary – Huang Ba used the time to study the Classic of Documents from Xiahou, embodying the Confucian ideal that “hearing the truth in the morning, one could die content in the evening.”

The Shifting Balance of Power on the Frontier

The Western Regions became a major flashpoint during Emperor Xuan’s reign. The Han court maintained its marriage alliance with Wusun through Princess Liu Jieyou, who played a crucial diplomatic role. When Wusun requested assistance against Xiongnu aggression in 72 BCE, Emperor Xuan launched a massive five-pronged campaign:

– Over 150,000 cavalry deployed across different routes
– Most generals failed to achieve significant results due to Xiongnu evasion
– Only the Wusun forces led by Chang Hui achieved major success, capturing 40,000 people and 700,000 livestock

This campaign marked a turning point in Han-Xiongnu relations. Combined with natural disasters and attacks from neighboring tribes, the Xiongnu confederation began its irreversible decline, losing up to 30% of its population and 50% of livestock.

The Poisonous Politics of the Imperial Harem

The Han court witnessed one of its most notorious palace intrigues in 71 BCE surrounding the death of Empress Xu. Huo Guang’s wife, Lady Xian, conspired with the court physician Chunyu Yan to poison the pregnant empress, clearing the way for her daughter Huo Chengjun to become empress. The plot succeeded shockingly:

– Chunyu Yan smuggled toxic aconite into the palace
– She administered the poison after the empress gave birth
– Despite initial investigations, Huo Guang protected the conspirators
– Huo Chengjun became empress in 70 BCE with extravagant ceremonies

This scandal would have lasting consequences, contributing to the eventual downfall of the Huo clan after Huo Guang’s death.

Administrative Reforms and Good Governance

Following Huo Guang’s death in 68 BCE, Emperor Xuan began his personal rule by implementing significant administrative reforms:

– Instituted five-day meetings with ministers to review governance
– Personally interviewed candidates for provincial posts
– Emphasized stability in local appointments, believing frequent transfers harmed governance
– Rewarded effective administrators with promotions and honors

The emperor famously stated: “The people can live in peace without resentment only when government is fair and lawsuits are properly judged.” His reign became known as the “Restoration of Han” for its good governance.

The Decline of the Huo Clan and Centralization of Power

With Huo Guang gone, Emperor Xuan and officials like Wei Xiang moved to reduce the Huo family’s influence:

– Wei Xiang warned of the dangers of concentrated family power
– Reforms included eliminating duplicate memorials that allowed censors to suppress criticism
– The emperor began appointing officials based on merit rather than connections

These measures gradually shifted power back to the throne after decades of dominance by the Huo family.

The Continuing Decline of the Xiongnu

The Xiongnu’s troubles continued through the late 70s BCE:

– A failed invasion of Wusun ended in disaster due to blizzards
– Attacks from Dingling, Wuhuan, and Wusun further weakened them
– Internal divisions grew as subject tribes rebelled
– By 68 BCE, they sought peace with Han China

This period marked the definitive shift in the balance of power on the steppe, with Han China emerging as the dominant force in East Asia.

Conclusion: The Significance of Emperor Xuan’s Reign

Emperor Xuan’s reign represented a pivotal transition in Western Han history. From the political intrigues following Emperor Zhao’s death to the decline of the Xiongnu, this era saw:

– The resolution of decades-long power struggles at court
– Important administrative reforms emphasizing good governance
– The definitive weakening of Han China’s nomadic rivals
– The emergence of a more centralized imperial system

The emperor’s unique background – having grown up among commoners – informed his pragmatic approach to governance. While scandals like Empress Xu’s murder tarnished the era, the overall stability and effective administration earned Emperor Xuan’s reign its reputation as the “Restoration of Han.” The institutions and policies established during this period would shape Chinese governance for centuries to come.