The Gathering Storm in a Divided China

The years 262-264 CE marked a critical juncture in China’s Three Kingdoms period, when the delicate balance between Wei, Shu, and Wu began its irreversible collapse. This era witnessed the dramatic fall of Shu Han, the westernmost of the three kingdoms, and the continued consolidation of power by the Sima clan in Wei. The events of these three years would reshape the political landscape and set the stage for the eventual reunification of China under the Jin Dynasty.

During this time, each kingdom faced internal struggles alongside external threats. In Shu Han, the brilliant but controversial general Jiang Wei continued his northern campaigns against Wei, despite growing opposition at home. The Wei regime, now effectively controlled by Sima Zhao, prepared its decisive move against its longtime rival. Meanwhile, Wu under Emperor Sun Xiu watched warily from the east, its leaders acutely aware that Shu’s fate might foreshadow their own.

The Final Campaigns of Jiang Wei

The Shu Han general Jiang Wei, protégé of the legendary Zhuge Liang, remained committed to his mentor’s northern expansion policy. In the autumn of 262 CE, he prepared yet another campaign against Wei, drawing criticism from his colleague Liao Hua: “To use weapons without cease is to play with fire and burn oneself—this describes Jiang Wei precisely. Our wisdom cannot match the enemy’s, our strength is inferior, yet we keep attacking without pause! How shall we survive?”

True to form, Jiang Wei launched an invasion in winter 262, attacking Taoyang. The Wei general Deng Ai engaged him at Houhe and scored a decisive victory, forcing Jiang Wei to retreat to Tazhong. This defeat exacerbated Jiang Wei’s precarious position in the Shu court, where the eunuch Huang Hao had gained significant influence under the ineffectual Emperor Liu Shan.

Huang Hao conspired with General Yan Yu to replace Jiang Wei, prompting the latter to warn Liu Shan: “Huang Hao is cunning and arbitrary, he will ruin the state! I beg you to execute him!” The emperor dismissed these concerns, calling Huang Hao merely “a menial servant.” Recognizing his vulnerability, Jiang Wei withdrew to Tazhong to “plant wheat,” effectively exiling himself from the Shu capital Chengdu.

Cultural Currents Amid Political Upheaval

While military conflicts dominated the period, intellectual and cultural developments continued to shape the era. The famous “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove”—including the brilliant but ill-fated Ji Kang—epitomized the Daoist-inspired rejection of Confucian formalism that flourished among certain literati disillusioned with the turbulent times.

Ji Kang’s tragic encounter with the rising Wei official Zhong Hui revealed the dangerous intersection of philosophy and politics. When Zhong Hui visited Ji Kang as he forged metal, the sage ignored him until finally asking: “What did you hear that brought you here? What have you seen that makes you leave?” Zhong Hui’s cryptic reply—”I came having heard what I heard, I leave having seen what I saw”—masked deep resentment that would later contribute to Ji Kang’s execution.

This cultural vignette illustrates how intellectual dissent became increasingly perilous as Sima Zhao tightened his grip on power. The execution of Ji Kang in 262 for “having great fame yet spreading dissolute speech that harms the times and confuses teaching” demonstrated the regime’s intolerance of influential critics.

Wei’s Calculated Move Against Shu

By 263, Sima Zhao had resolved to eliminate Shu Han. Despite opposition from many Wei officials, he found an ally in Zhong Hui, who enthusiastically supported the campaign. Sima Zhao’s strategic rationale was clear: “Since pacifying Shouchun six years ago, we’ve had no military actions. We’ve trained soldiers and prepared weapons precisely to deal with these two rebels [Shu and Wu].”

The invasion plan was comprehensive: Deng Ai would lead 30,000 troops to pin down Jiang Wei at Tazhong; Zhuge Xu would block retreat routes with another 30,000; while Zhong Hui commanded the main force of 100,000 through three passes into Hanzhong. The Shu court, misled by Huang Hao’s reliance on divination, failed to prepare adequate defenses.

The Dramatic Fall of Shu

The campaign unfolded with remarkable speed. Zhong Hui’s forces easily took Hanzhong after the defection of Shu commander Jiang Shu at Yang’an Pass. Meanwhile, Deng Ai embarked on his daring crossing of the Yinping trails—a treacherous 700-li journey through mountainous terrain where soldiers had to “climb trees and scale cliffs in single file.” Emerging unexpectedly at Jiangyou, he defeated Zhuge Zhan (son of Zhuge Liang) at Mianzhu, clearing the path to Chengdu.

Faced with imminent defeat, Shu officials debated their options. The scholar Qiao Zhou persuasively argued for surrender to Wei rather than fleeing to Wu or the southern wilderness: “Since ancient times, there has never been an emperor who resided in another state… To submit to the small rather than the great, to suffer humiliation twice rather than once—this is not proper planning.”

In late 263, Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai, marking the end of Shu Han after 43 years. The surrender terms were relatively generous—Liu Shan received the title “Duke of Anle”—but the psychological impact was profound. Liu Shan’s infamous remark “I am happy here and think not of Shu” when questioned by Sima Zhao became proverbial for heedless complacency.

Aftermath and Intrigues

The conquest’s aftermath proved treacherous for the victors. Deng Ai’s arrogant behavior—telling Shu officials “You gentlemen are fortunate to have encountered me, and therefore have today!”—and unilateral decisions aroused Sima Zhao’s suspicions. Meanwhile, Zhong Hui, now commanding all Wei forces in the west, conspired with the surrendered Jiang Wei to establish an independent regime.

Their rebellion collapsed spectacularly in early 264 when Wei officers, fearing execution, stormed Zhong Hui’s headquarters in Chengdu. Both Zhong Hui and Jiang Wei were killed in the melee, while Deng Ai fell victim to earlier rivalries despite having been arrested on questionable charges. The swift resolution of these crises demonstrated the resilience of Sima Zhao’s system.

The Sima Clan’s Ascendancy

These events solidified Sima Zhao’s position. In 264, he accepted the title King of Jin and established the five-rank nobility system, laying institutional foundations for the future Jin Dynasty. His decision to name Sima Yan (rather than his beloved younger brother Sima You) as heir reflected careful political calculation, with advisors emphasizing the elder son’s “heavenly demeanor” and “transcendent talent.”

Meanwhile in Wu, the death of Emperor Sun Xiu and succession of Sun Hao initially raised hopes before his tyrannical nature emerged. The executions of high officials Pu Yangxing and Zhang Bu foreshadowed Wu’s eventual collapse in 280 CE.

Legacy of a Pivotal Transition

The fall of Shu Han marked the beginning of the end for the Three Kingdoms period. Sima Zhao’s successful campaign demonstrated Wei’s military superiority and administrative cohesion, while the swift suppression of the Zhong Hui rebellion showed his regime’s stability.

The events of 262-264 also revealed enduring themes in Chinese history: the dangers of court intrigue (embodied by Huang Hao), the strategic importance of the Hanzhong region, and the complex relationship between military conquest and political consolidation. The relatively humane treatment of the surrendered Shu elite established a pattern for later dynastic transitions.

Perhaps most significantly, this period confirmed the Sima clan’s inevitable march toward imperial power. Within a year of Sima Zhao’s death in 265, Sima Yan would force the abdication of the last Wei emperor and proclaim the Jin Dynasty, completing a process whose critical phase unfolded during these three decisive years.