A Nation at the Crossroads: Korea’s Turbulent 1890s

The late 19th century marked a pivotal era for Korea as it navigated the treacherous waters of foreign influence and internal reform. Following the 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War, which severed Korea’s traditional tributary relationship with Qing China, the peninsula became a battleground for competing imperial ambitions. Against this backdrop, the return of Seo Jae-pil (Philip Jaisohn) in early 1896 symbolized a new chapter in Korea’s struggle for sovereignty. Having fled after the failed 1884 Gapsin Coup, this American-educated reformer brought back Western ideas that would catalyze Korea’s enlightenment movement.

The Birth of Modern Korean Nationalism

Seo Jae-pil’s establishment of The Independent newspaper in April 1896 marked Korea’s first privately-owned, vernacular-language newspaper. This revolutionary publication became the mouthpiece for modernization, advocating constitutional government, public education, and gender equality. The newspaper’s success paved the way for the July 1896 formation of the Independence Club, a watershed moment in Korean civic organization. The symbolic destruction of Yeongeunmun (Gate of Welcoming Imperial Grace), which had represented Korea’s subservience to China, and its replacement with Independence Gate (completed November 1897) visually proclaimed Korea’s new national identity.

The Russian Sanctuary: King Gojong’s Strategic Retreat

The geopolitical chess game intensified when King Gojong took refuge in the Russian legation following the 1895 assassination of Queen Min. His 375-day stay (February 11, 1896 – February 20, 1897) became a diplomatic quandary. While conservative yangban officials saw this as national humiliation, reformists recognized Russia’s protection as necessary against Japanese encroachment. The king’s eventual return to Deoksugung Palace under Russian-trained Korean guards demonstrated Moscow’s growing influence, though it came at the cost of inflaming tensions with Tokyo.

The Great Power Chessboard: Russia’s Dilemma

The appointment of Count Mikhail Nikolayevich Muravyov as Russian Foreign Minister in January 1897 brought new dynamics to Korea policy. Described by contemporaries as vain yet ambitious, Muravyov inherited a precarious situation where military advisors in Seoul risked violating the 1896 Yamagata-Lobanov Agreement with Japan. Finance Minister Sergei Witte’s scathing assessment of Muravyov as “a man who shuns work” contrasted with the new minister’s cautious approach – delaying additional military advisors while maintaining Russia’s foothold.

Military Reforms and International Backlash

The Russian military mission under Colonel Dmitry Putyata achieved remarkable success training Korean royal guards, conducting impressive public drills by June 1897. However, Japan’s fierce opposition forced compromises. The original plan for 6,000 Russian-trained troops was halved, and new advisors arrived discreetly in July 1897. Japanese pressure created paralysis among Korean ministers, with acting minister Kato Masuo leading anti-Russian campaigns. King Gojong’s personal determination pushed through the military agreement on May 5, 1897, but implementation remained contentious.

Diplomatic Realignment: The Rosen Factor

The appointment of Roman Rosen as Russian minister to Japan signaled a policy shift. His April 1897 memorandum argued persuasively that antagonizing Japan over Korea jeopardized Russia’s greater strategic interests against Britain. Rosen’s vision of Russo-Japanese cooperation, though nostalgic for 1880s relations, correctly identified the impossibility of excluding Japan from Korea. Muravyov’s May 26 instructions embodied this balanced approach – maintaining influence without provoking Tokyo, while accepting Japanese commercial dominance.

The Twilight of Russian Influence

The departure of Karl Weber in September 1897 marked the end of an era. As Russia’s first minister to Korea (1888-1897), Weber had become more advocate for Gojong than representative of St. Petersburg. His replacement by Alexey Speyer coincided with scaled-back ambitions. Though Russian training continued for 3,000 troops, the grander visions of Korean military reform faded against great power realities. The Independence Club evolved into a political forum, while Korea moved toward the 1897 proclamation of the Korean Empire – a symbolic assertion of sovereignty amidst growing foreign pressures.

Legacy of the Independence Movement

The 1896-1897 period planted seeds of modern Korean nationalism that would bear fruit in later independence struggles. The Independent newspaper’s advocacy for democracy and national strength influenced generations, while Independence Gate remains a powerful national symbol. Russia’s failed attempt to create a protectorate demonstrated Korea’s precarious position between empires, foreshadowing the 1905 protectorate and 1910 annexation by Japan. These events also revealed the limits of Russian power in East Asia, contributing to the tensions that would erupt in the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War.

The complex interplay of domestic reform and international rivalry during these two years represents a microcosm of Korea’s modern historical trajectory – a nation simultaneously embracing modernity while resisting colonialism, its fate entangled with the ambitions of greater powers. The ideals of the Independence Club and the practical lessons of Great Power diplomacy continue to resonate in contemporary Korea’s national consciousness and foreign policy outlook.