The Meiji Restoration and the Dream of Expansion

The origins of Japan’s aggressive expansion into Korea can be traced back to the transformative Meiji Restoration of 1868. Emerging from centuries of feudal isolation, Japan rapidly modernized, drawing inspiration from Western models—particularly the reforms of Russia’s Peter the Great. Japanese intellectuals like Sakuma Shōzan and Watanabe Kazan admired Peter’s ability to modernize Russia through top-down reforms, emphasizing military strength and territorial expansion.

This admiration crystallized into a national ideology: Japan, having achieved “civilization and enlightenment” (文明開化) and “wealth and military power” (富国强兵), now sought to expand its territory. The logical targets were its neighbors—Karafuto (Sakhalin) to the north, the Ryukyu Islands and Taiwan to the southwest, and most crucially, Korea to the west.

Early Aggression: Taiwan, Ryukyu, and the Forced Opening of Korea

Japan’s imperial ambitions materialized swiftly. In 1874, Japan launched a punitive expedition to Taiwan under the pretext of protecting Ryukyuan sailors, marking its first overseas military campaign. By 1879, Japan formally annexed the Ryukyu Kingdom, extinguishing its sovereignty.

Korea, however, became the primary focus. In 1875, Japan provoked the Ganghwa Island incident, using gunboat diplomacy to force Korea into the unequal Treaty of Ganghwa (1876). This treaty, modeled after Western imperialist agreements, opened Korean ports to Japanese trade and undermined Korea’s sovereignty. Japan justified its actions by invoking the “Russian threat”—a largely exaggerated fear that Russia would dominate Korea if Japan did not act first.

The Korean Peninsula in Turmoil: Internal Strife and Foreign Interference

Korea, caught between tradition and modernization, descended into political chaos. King Gojong, navigating factional struggles between conservative isolationists (led by his father, the Daewongun) and reformists, sought foreign support to counterbalance Japan. In a dramatic shift, he turned to Russia, dismissing both Chinese suzerainty and Japanese influence.

This move infuriated Japan. Foreign Minister Inoue Kaoru derided Gojong’s government as “childish” and warned that without intervention, Korea’s instability would threaten both Japan and China. By the 1880s, Korea became a battleground for foreign influence:
– The Imo Mutiny (1882): Conservative Korean soldiers attacked Japanese legations, prompting Japanese military retaliation.
– The Gapsin Coup (1884): Pro-Japanese reformers staged a failed coup, further entrenching foreign intervention.

The Road to War: Japan, China, and the Clash over Korea

Tensions escalated in 1894 when the Donghak Peasant Rebellion erupted in Korea. When China sent troops to suppress the revolt, Japan seized the opportunity to deploy its own forces, ostensibly to “protect” Korean sovereignty. What followed was a calculated takeover:
– Japan occupied Seoul, seized the royal palace, and effectively imprisoned King Gojong.
– Without a formal declaration of war, Japan attacked Chinese forces, sinking troop transports and igniting the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).

Japan’s modernized military proved devastatingly effective. Victories at Pyongyang and the Yalu River humiliated China, culminating in the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895). Japan demanded Taiwan, the Liaodong Peninsula, and recognition of Korea’s “independence”—a euphemism for Japanese dominance.

The Triple Intervention and the Scramble for Korea

Japan’s gains were short-lived. Russia, fearing Japanese encroachment into Manchuria, allied with Germany and France to force Japan to return Liaodong—a humiliation that fueled Japanese resentment. Meanwhile, Korea’s King Gojong and Queen Min sought Russian protection, further alienating Japan.

In 1895, Japanese agents assassinated Queen Min, a brutal act that shocked the international community and drove Gojong to seek refuge in the Russian legation. Japan’s influence in Korea collapsed overnight, and Russia emerged as the dominant power.

The Failed Diplomacy of Partition

Japan attempted to salvage its position through diplomacy. In 1896, statesman Yamagata Aritomo proposed dividing Korea into northern (Russian) and southern (Japanese) spheres of influence. Had Russia agreed, Korea might have survived as a neutral buffer state. Instead, Russia—distracted by its own ambitions in Manchuria—dismissed the plan.

Japanese diplomat Nishi Tokujirō concluded that Russia had no real interest in annexing Korea. This assessment emboldened Japan: if Russia would not act decisively, Japan could seize Korea unchallenged.

Legacy: The Path to Colonization and Beyond

The events of the late 19th century set the stage for Japan’s annexation of Korea in 1910. Key lessons emerged:
1. Imperialism’s Logic: Japan’s actions mirrored Western imperialism, using “modernization” and “protection” to justify domination.
2. The Myth of the Russian Threat: Japan’s fear of Russia was exaggerated but served as a convenient pretext for expansion.
3. Korea’s Tragedy: Caught between empires, Korea’s sovereignty was systematically dismantled—a prelude to its colonial suffering under Japan.

Today, this history remains contentious. Japan’s imperial legacy continues to strain relations with Korea, while the geopolitical rivalries of the 19th century echo in modern East Asia’s tensions. The story of Japan’s rise as an imperial power is a cautionary tale of how nationalism, militarization, and territorial ambition can reshape—and devastate—entire regions.