Origins of the Eight Banners System
The Eight Banners system formed the backbone of Qing dynasty’s military and social organization. Originating from the Jurchen hunting groups, it was formally established by Nurhaci in 1601 with four plain-colored banners (yellow, white, red, and blue). By 1615, these expanded to eight banners with the addition of bordered versions, creating the foundational Manchu banners.
Initially exclusive to Manchus, the system gradually incorporated Mongols and Han Chinese as the Qing expanded. In 1635, Hong Taiji organized separate Mongol Eight Banners, followed by Han Eight Banners in 1642. This tripartite structure (Manchu-Mongol-Han) became the empire’s organizational framework, though Manchu banners always held superior status.
The Hierarchy Within the Banners
The banners followed a strict ceremonial ranking:
1. Bordered Yellow
2. Plain Yellow
3. Plain White
4. Plain Red
5. Bordered White
6. Bordered Red
7. Plain Blue
8. Bordered Blue
Practically, the upper three banners (Bordered Yellow, Plain Yellow, Plain White) directly served the emperor and held higher prestige than the lower five banners governed by princes. This distinction became crucial for banner promotion – the ultimate honor being elevation from lower banners to the upper three.
Banner Promotion: Pathways to Prestige
The practice of “raising banners” (抬旗) began during Kangxi’s reign when his mother Empress Xiaokangzhang (née Tong) was elevated from Han Plain Blue to Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner. This established the precedent that imperial mothers must come from upper three banners, serving dual purposes:
– Enhancing royal pedigree
– Binding maternal clans to imperial power
Subsequent cases followed this “mother honored through son” pattern:
– Yongzheng’s mother Empress Xiaogongren (Wuyala clan)
– Qianlong’s mother Empress Xiaoshengxian (Niohuru clan, fictionalized in Empresses in the Palace)
– Empress Dowager Cixi’s family
Beyond imperial mothers, favored consorts could also receive promotion. Qianlong elevated Consort Gao from bondservant banners to Manchu Bordered Yellow, and Consort Ling (mother of his successor) similarly rose in status.
Political Dimensions of Banner Promotion
Banner elevation served as a potent political instrument:
– Consolidating power: Yongzheng promoted Prince Yi’s mother from bondservant to Bordered Yellow to reward his loyalty
– Rewarding merit: Military heroes like Nian Gengyao (Han to Manchu banners) and civil officials like Tian Wenjing (for Yellow River management) gained elevated status
– Succession signaling: Potential heir’s maternal family often received promotion, explaining Empress Ulanara’s concern in Empires in the Palace dramatization
However, strict boundaries remained. Even Zhang Tingyu – the only Han Chinese granted imperial temple honors – couldn’t cross the fundamental divide between banner people and commoners due to lacking “dragon-following merit” from the dynasty’s founding.
Privileges and Problems of Banner Status
Banner membership conferred significant advantages:
– Political: Special imperial examinations with higher pass rates
– Economic: Land grants and stipends ensuring lifelong support
– Legal: Judicial privileges and exemptions
These privileges spawned widespread identity fraud during Qianlong’s reign, prompting strict crackdowns. By Daoguang’s era, cases like Mongol widows fraudulently registering adopted sons revealed the system’s contradictions between maintaining ethnic purity and humanitarian concerns.
Legacy of the Banner System
Though abolished after 1911, the system left enduring marks:
– Cultural memory preserved in literature (Lao She’s Teahouse, Ye Guangqin’s novels)
– Administrative precedents in ethnic governance
– Lasting impact on Manchu-Han relations
The banner promotion mechanism exemplifies how the Qing strategically manipulated ethnic hierarchies to serve political ends, creating a unique system of mobility within rigid social structures. Its evolution mirrors the dynasty’s balancing act between Manchu exclusivity and multi-ethnic empire building.