The Challenge at Nalanda’s Gates

In the 7th century, the prestigious Nalanda University stood as the intellectual crown jewel of Buddhist learning. This ancient center of scholarship attracted students from across Asia, including the renowned Chinese monk Xuanzang who had journeyed thousands of miles to study original Buddhist texts. The university’s reputation for rigorous debate and philosophical discourse made it both respected and occasionally targeted by rival schools of thought.

One day, a bold challenger arrived at Nalanda’s gates – a philosopher from the Lokāyata (Materialist) school, one of the major Hindu philosophical systems that rejected supernaturalism and emphasized empirical knowledge. This Lokāyata scholar had posted forty theses challenging Buddhist doctrine publicly, creating quite a stir. For several days, he loudly proclaimed his arguments, demanding a public debate with Nalanda’s scholars.

Xuanzang, though aware of the challenge immediately, waited several days before responding. This delay suggests the complexity of the Lokāyata arguments – these weren’t simple claims to refute. The forty theses likely presented fundamental challenges to Buddhist epistemology and metaphysics that required careful consideration. The Chinese monk understood that engaging point-by-point might lead to an inconclusive quagmire that would still count as victory for the challenger.

Xuanzang’s Unorthodox Strategy

When Xuanzang finally accepted the challenge, he did so in a surprising manner that broke from traditional Indian debate protocols. Rather than addressing the forty theses directly, he reframed the entire discussion by classifying all non-Buddhist schools (including Lokāyata) into two categories:

First were those distinguished by extreme external practices – the ash-smeared ascetics, naked ascetics, skull-bearers, and filth-adorning sects. Xuanzang vividly described these groups: “Some cover themselves in ashes like white cats sleeping by ovens; others go naked with matted hair like withered trees by rivers; some wear garlands of human skulls like cemetery ghouls; others dress in rags and consume excrement like mad pigs in sewers.”

Second were those distinguished by philosophical theories – particularly the Sāṃkhya and Vaiśeṣika schools. Xuanzang systematically dismantled their metaphysical claims about the nature of reality and consciousness.

This approach demonstrated brilliant rhetorical strategy. By not mentioning Lokāyata specifically at first, Xuanzang forced his opponent into defending the entire category of “heterodox” schools. The Chinese monk essentially constructed a syllogism: All non-Buddhist paths have either absurd practices or flawed theories; Lokāyata is a non-Buddhist path; therefore Lokāyata must share these defects.

The Debate’s Dramatic Conclusion

As the debate progressed, the Lokāyata philosopher found himself trapped in Xuanzang’s logical web. Unable to extricate his school from Xuanzang’s sweeping critique of “heterodox” systems, he eventually fell silent. According to traditional accounts, the defeated philosopher stood and declared: “I am vanquished. According to our prior agreement, I submit my head.”

Indian philosophical debates often carried high stakes – defeated scholars might become disciples of the victor or, in extreme cases, face death. Xuanzang, embodying Buddhist compassion, spared his opponent’s life but imposed an alternative penalty: “We Buddhist followers never harm others. You shall become my attendant, obeying my instructions and receiving my teachings.” The philosopher reportedly accepted this with relief and gratitude.

An Unexpected Turn of Events

This story might have ended here as another triumph in Xuanzang’s illustrious career. However, the defeated philosopher would play a crucial role in subsequent events. When Xuanzang later struggled to understand the arguments in a text called “The Destruction of Buddhist Doctrine” by the formidable scholar Śīlabhadra (teacher to three kings), his former opponent revealed he had studied this very text extensively under its author.

In a remarkable display of intellectual humility, Xuanzang – the debate’s victor – became the student, and the defeated Lokāyata philosopher became the teacher. Under cover of night (to protect Xuanzang’s reputation), the philosopher thoroughly explained the difficult text, enabling Xuanzang to craft a devastating rebuttal called “The Destruction of Heretical Views.”

The Ripple Effects of a Debate

The Lokāyata philosopher’s story continued unfolding. After being released from service, he traveled south and praised Xuanzang’s virtues to King Kumāra of Kāmarūpa. This led to the king inviting Xuanzang to his court, setting in motion events that would bring the Chinese monk before the powerful Emperor Harṣa (Śīlāditya).

Meanwhile, another fascinating encounter occurred when a naked ascetic named Vajra visited Xuanzang. Known for his divination skills, Vajra predicted Xuanzang’s safe return to China with royal assistance – a prophecy that came true when King Kumāra and later Emperor Harṣa provided escorts and resources for Xuanzang’s journey home with hundreds of Buddhist texts.

The Legacy of Intellectual Encounter

This episode reveals several important aspects of medieval Asian intellectual culture:

1. The high-stakes, sophisticated nature of philosophical debate in classical India, where logic and rhetoric were developed to extraordinary levels.

2. Xuanzang’s remarkable adaptability – his willingness to learn from a defeated opponent shows true scholarly openness.

3. The cosmopolitan environment of Nalanda University, where Chinese, Indian, and other Asian traditions intersected.

4. The complex relationship between Buddhist and Hindu philosophical systems, involving both rivalry and mutual influence.

Xuanzang’s triumph wasn’t merely rhetorical cleverness – it demonstrated deep understanding of Indian philosophical systems and mastery of debate tactics. His handling of the situation also reflected Buddhist values: firm in defending doctrine yet compassionate toward opponents, rigorous in scholarship yet humble in learning.

The story endures because it encapsulates the vibrant intellectual exchange that characterized the “Golden Age” of Indian Buddhism, showing how ideas traveled across cultures along the Silk Road, transforming all they touched. Xuanzang’s journey – both physical and philosophical – remains one of history’s great adventures of the mind.