The Fractured Landscape of Five Dynasties China

The mid-10th century witnessed one of China’s most turbulent eras—the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–979 CE). Following the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, warlords carved the empire into competing regimes. Among these, two northern powers emerged as key players: the Later Zhou under Emperor Shizong (Chai Rong) and the Northern Han, a rump state clinging to power with Khitan support.

This era’s instability stemmed from systemic weaknesses. Military governors (jiedushi) had grown autonomous during the late Tang, and their rivalries now prevented reunification. The Later Liang’s founder Zhu Wen temporarily dominated the Central Plains but failed to subdue Shanxi’s mountainous stronghold held by Li Keyong. Meanwhile, Yang Xingmi’s Wu Kingdom blocked southern expansion, making the Huai River a de facto border.

The Stakes at Gaoping (954 CE)

The Battle of Gaoping unfolded on the very plains where the legendary Battle of Changping (260 BCE) had once decided the Warring States’ fate. Three years earlier, Later Han’s last emperor had executed loyalists, prompting general Guo Wei to seize power and establish the Later Zhou. When Guo died in 954, his adopted son Chai Rong faced immediate rebellion from Northern Han’s Liu Chong, who sought vengeance for his executed heir.

The clash was a generational turning point:
– A Zhou victory would enable Chai Rong to pursue national unification
– A Northern Han triumph would perpetuate fragmentation, as Liu’s Khitan dependence made him a puppet ruler

Chai Rong’s triumph at Gaoping proved decisive. Though his subsequent siege of Taiyuan failed, the battle cemented his authority to reform the military and economy—laying foundations for eventual reunification.

Strategic Chessboard: Geography as Destiny

China’s reunification puzzle hinged on controlling three critical zones:
1. Shanxi Highlands: The “roof of North China” offered military dominance but was held by hostile Northern Han
2. Huai River Basin: Later Zhou’s capture of this breadbasket from Southern Tang secured their southern flank
3. Sixteen Prefectures: The lost Yan-Yun territories (ceded to the Khitan in 938) left the Central Plains vulnerable to nomadic incursions

Chai Rong’s genius lay in sequencing his campaigns. Unlike earlier rulers who overextended, he first secured defensive depth by:
– Seizing Longxi (958) to shield against Sichuan-based threats
– Conquering Huai’nan (958) from Southern Tang, pushing defenses to the Yangtze
– Preserving Southern Tang as a buffer state to avoid overcommitment

The Unfinished Northern Campaign

In 959, Chai Rong launched his boldest move—reclaiming the Sixteen Prefectures. Initial success saw Zhou troops retake Ying and Mo prefectures, but the emperor’s sudden death aborted the campaign. This left two fateful legacies:
1. Song Dynasty’s Conservative Strategy: Zhao Kuangyin prioritized southern conquests first, allowing Khitan consolidation in the north
2. Permanent Territorial Losses: Yanjing (modern Beijing) remained beyond Chinese control until the Ming Dynasty

Institutional Reforms: Preventing the Next Rebellion

The Song Dynasty’s founding in 960 institutionalized Chai Rong’s vision while addressing military coups through radical decentralization:
– Military: Separated troop training (Three Commands) from deployment authority (Shumiyuan)
– Administration: Created overlapping oversight roles (e.g., fiscal commissioners bypassing governors)
– Economic: Centralized revenue collection, starving regional warlords of funds

These reforms achieved stability at the cost of military dynamism—a tradeoff that later hampered Song efforts against the Khitan and Jurchen.

The Contours of Song Reunification

By 979, the Song had absorbed all southern states except:
– Dali Kingdom (Yunnan): Deliberately excluded via the “Jade Axe Policy”
– Đại Cồ Việt (Northern Vietnam): Secured autonomy after the Battle of Bạch Đằng (938)
– Sixteen Prefectures: Remained under Liao Dynasty control

Paradoxically, this smaller empire became economically and culturally richer than Tang’s vast domains, proving that strategic patience—first demonstrated at Gaoping—could rebuild greatness from fragmentation.

The Battle of Gaoping thus stands as the pivot between chaos and order, where one leader’s vision began reassembling China’s fractured pieces. Though Chai Rong’s life was cut short, his strategic template endured through the Song’s rise, demonstrating how calculated restraint could ultimately achieve lasting unity.