The Collapse of Tang and the Age of Warlords
The late Tang Dynasty bequeathed to the subsequent Five Dynasties period an inheritance of relentless warfare and fragmentation. The regional military governors (fanzhen), who had once served as the empire’s defenders, became the primary source of instability during the mid-to-late Tang. Continuous localized conflicts drained the dynasty’s vitality, and the cataclysmic Huang Chao Rebellion (875–884) delivered the final blow, toppling both the Tang court and the old eastern warlords.
In the two decades following Huang Chao’s revolt, the Tang lingered as a hollow shell of its former self, sustained only by the warlords’ reluctance to discard the symbolic “Son of Heaven.” No single faction was strong enough to claim the throne outright, so the fiction of imperial unity persisted—until it didn’t.
The Rise of New Powers: Zhu Wen and Li Keyong
By the late 9th century, the balance of power had shifted dramatically. The once-dominant Hebei warlords, who had defied central authority since the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763), were eclipsed by two formidable outsiders:
– Zhu Wen, a former Huang Chao lieutenant who defected to the Tang, and
– Li Keyong, a Shatuo Turk who carved out a power base in the northern frontier.
Neither belonged to the traditional aristocracy or the old fanzhen elite. Instead, they were ruthless opportunists who operated in the Tang heartland—Guanzhong, Henan, and Hedong—transforming the political landscape. Behind them, older warlords like the Youzhou (modern Beijing) strongholds played secondary roles. The late Tang became a battleground dominated by the Zhu-Li rivalry, with the remnants of the old order dragged into their blood-soaked conflicts.
The Bloody Path to Unification (and Its Failure)
For a brief moment, it seemed that the chaos might end. The largest warlord regimes began evolving into imperial dynasties, while smaller fanzhen were systematically crushed. Li Keyong’s Jin state, later the Later Tang (923–936), emerged as the dominant force, conquering Hebei, Shaanxi, and finally the Later Liang (Zhu Wen’s regime) in a series of brutal campaigns.
By the 930s, the Later Tang appeared poised to reunify China. It had secured the Central Plains and even launched a successful invasion of the Shu region (modern Sichuan). But the dream of unity collapsed as quickly as it had formed. A cycle of coups, assassinations, and betrayals—culminating in Shi Jingtang’s fateful alliance with the Khitan—shattered any hope of stability.
Shi Jingtang and the Khitan Gamble
In 936, Shi Jingtang, a Later Tang general, faced imminent destruction by his emperor. Desperate, he turned to the Khitan ruler Yelü Deguang (Emperor Taizong of Liao) and offered an unprecedented deal:
– Tribute: 300,000 bolts of silk annually,
– Submission: Addressing Yelü Deguang as “Father Emperor,” and
– Territory: Ceding the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan-Yun (modern northern Hebei and Beijing).
This decision altered East Asian history. The Khitan gained a strategic foothold south of the Great Wall, while the Central Plains lost its natural defenses. Shi’s advisor, Liu Zhiyuan, warned that surrendering these lands would doom future regimes—a prophecy that would haunt the Song Dynasty.
The Khitan’s Ascent and Retreat
The Khitan, once a peripheral steppe power, now became kingmakers in China. Yelü Deguang exploited Shi’s weakness, demanding ever-greater concessions. When Shi’s successor, Shi Chonggui, tried to resist, the Khitan invaded, sacked Kaifeng (947), and briefly proclaimed a Liao Dynasty over northern China.
But Khitan rule proved unsustainable. Their heavy-handed tactics—plundering cities, imposing harsh taxes—sparked revolts. Worse, the Central Plains’ climate was unbearable for steppe warriors; Yelü Deguang died of illness within months. His successor, Yelü Ruan (Emperor Shizong), faced immediate challenges:
– A succession crisis (his grandmother favored another claimant),
– Widespread Han Chinese rebellions, and
– The rise of Liu Zhiyuan, who expelled the Khitan and founded the Later Han (947–951).
By 948, the Khitan retreated to the Sixteen Prefectures, which they held firmly. This border would define Liao-Song relations for centuries.
The Legacy of the Five Dynasties
The Five Dynasties (907–960) were marked by three interlocking crises:
1. Internal Instability: The throne changed hands via coups, often orchestrated by imperial guards or close advisors (e.g., Zhao Kuangyin’s 960 coup founding the Song).
2. Regional Fragmentation: While major fanzhen declined, smaller warlords persisted, spawning the Ten Kingdoms in the south.
3. Steppe Intervention: The Khitan’s deep involvement set a precedent for later nomadic empires (Jurchens, Mongols) to manipulate Chinese politics.
This triad of threats—court conspiracies, regional separatism, and nomadic power—formed the backdrop for the Song Dynasty’s founding and its struggles to restore centralized rule.
Conclusion: A Dynasty Born from Chaos
The late Tang and Five Dynasties were an era of relentless violence, but also transformation. The old aristocratic-military order collapsed, making way for new dynasties built on merit and pragmatism. The Khitan’s rise redefined East Asia’s balance of power, while the loss of the Sixteen Prefectures became a lasting geopolitical wound.
When Zhao Kuangyin established the Song in 960, he inherited a fractured realm—but also the lessons of a century of chaos. His challenge was not just reunification, but ensuring that no future warlord, nor steppe empire, could again plunge China into such darkness.