The Collapse of the Romanov Dynasty

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was not a single event but a series of upheavals that dismantled centuries of autocratic rule. By early 1917, the Romanov dynasty, which had governed Russia since 1613, was buckling under the strain of World War I. Military defeats, economic collapse, and widespread discontent created a tinderbox. The February Revolution (March by the Gregorian calendar) erupted spontaneously when bread shortages in Petrograd (formerly St. Petersburg) sparked mass protests. Soldiers, ordered to suppress the demonstrations, instead joined the revolt. Within days, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule.

The Provisional Government, formed by liberal and moderate socialist politicians from the Duma, promised democratic reforms: freedom of speech, universal suffrage, and an end to ethnic discrimination. Yet it faced an immediate rival—the Petrograd Soviet, a council of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies that wielded grassroots authority. This “dual power” dynamic would define the revolution’s chaotic trajectory.

The Fragile Experiment of Provisional Government

Led initially by Prince Georgy Lvov and later by Alexander Kerensky, the Provisional Government struggled to stabilize Russia. It upheld wartime alliances with Britain and France, a decision that alienated war-weary soldiers and workers. Meanwhile, the Soviet’s “Order No. 1” undermined military discipline by granting soldiers democratic control over their units.

Key reforms—like land redistribution—were deferred to a future Constituent Assembly, fueling peasant unrest. Inflation soared, factories closed, and desertions from the front lines surged. The government’s insistence on continuing the war, epitomized by the disastrous June Offensive, eroded its legitimacy. As one soldier lamented in August 1917: “The same wolves, now in sheep’s clothing, rule us with the same promises of a better life.”

Lenin and the Bolshevik Surge

Vladimir Lenin, exiled in Switzerland, returned to Russia in April 1917 with German assistance. His “April Theses” demanded an immediate socialist revolution: “All power to the Soviets,” land for peasants, and an end to the war. Initially dismissed as radical, Lenin’s message gained traction as the Provisional Government faltered.

The July Days—a spontaneous uprising by armed workers and soldiers—hinted at Bolshevik influence, though the party initially hesitated to lead. After a crackdown forced Lenin into hiding, the failed Kornilov Affair in August revived Bolshevik fortunes. General Lavr Kornilov’s alleged coup attempt prompted Kerensky to arm Bolshevik Red Guards, inadvertently strengthening his enemies. By October, the Bolsheviks dominated key Soviets, including Petrograd’s, under Leon Trotsky’s leadership.

The October Revolution and Soviet Power

On October 25 (November 7), Bolshevik forces seized Petrograd’s infrastructure with minimal resistance. The Provisional Government, deserted by its allies, fell after a nearly bloodless storming of the Winter Palace. At the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, Bolshevik delegates declared a new government—the Council of People’s Commissars—with Lenin as chairman. Decrees on peace and land redistribution won popular support, while opposition parties walked out, branding the coup a betrayal.

Social Upheaval and Revolutionary Culture

The revolution unleashed a tidal wave of social transformation. Workers took over factories, peasants seized estates, and soldiers formed committees to challenge officers. Posters, poetry, and songs celebrated liberation, like Mikhail Serafimovich’s 1917 verse: “A leaden weight has lifted… My soul is drunk with boundless feeling.” Yet violence accompanied emancipation: landlords’ mansions burned, and “class enemies” faced revolutionary justice.

For many, the revolution promised dignity after centuries of oppression. A soldier’s banner at a Petrograd funeral captured this idealism: “Eternal glory to those who fell for freedom.” But the revolution also exposed fractures—between urban radicals and rural traditionalists, between utopian dreams and harsh realities.

Legacy: The Birth of a New Order

The Bolsheviks’ victory reshaped global history. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) ended Russia’s war with Germany but ceded vast territories. A brutal civil war (1918–1922) pitted Reds against Whites, with foreign powers intervening. By 1922, the Soviet Union emerged, institutionalizing one-party rule.

The revolution’s ideals—equality, workers’ control—clashed with the authoritarianism that followed. Yet its impact endured: inspiring anticolonial movements, terrifying capitalist elites, and proving that empires could crumble overnight. As historian Sheila Fitzpatrick noted, 1917 was less a blueprint than a “revolutionary improvisation”—one whose echoes still resonate in debates about power, justice, and change.

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