The Birth of Eretria and the End of Basileis Rule

In the early 8th century BCE, a remarkable transformation began on the western coast of Euboea. Refugees from the abandoned settlement of Lefkandi established a new city called Eretria, strategically positioned between a natural harbor and an easily defensible acropolis opposite mainland Greece. The archaeological record reveals a fascinating story through the lavish burial of a local prince around 720 BCE – his ashes interred in a bronze cauldron with four swords and six spears as grave goods. For over forty years, this elite family buried more than fifteen members in opulent tombs filled with weapons and jewelry, creating the most spectacular burial site in Greece at the time.

Suddenly around 680 BCE, this practice ceased. The cemetery became a public cult site with a massive triangular monument built over the graves, marking the symbolic end of the era of basileis (hereditary chieftains). This transformation coincided with the broader development of the polis (city-state) across the Mediterranean world, where political power gradually shifted from aristocratic families to citizen bodies.

The Evolution of the Polis System

The concept of the polis represented a revolutionary political development – a clearly defined territory governed by its citizen body. Between 800-500 BCE, we witness increasing political participation by ordinary citizens (the very word “politics” derives from “affairs of the polis”). This period saw dramatic population growth, particularly during the 8th century population explosion that transformed Greek society.

While aristocrats like Theognis of Megara lamented the rising influence of commoners “who knew neither justice nor law,” the transition wasn’t immediate. Most poleis remained controlled by wealthy elite families between 700-500 BCE. However, new political structures emerged that were unknown in the Dark Ages:

– Formal differentiation of political offices
– Early law codes (7th century) limiting magistrates’ power
– The rise of tyranny (initially a neutral term) as single families temporarily dominated

By 500 BCE, polis identity became central to Greek social relations, reflected in naming conventions that included personal name, father’s name, and city origin (e.g., “Cleomenes son of Anaxandridas the Lacedaemonian”).

Archaeological Evidence of Polis Formation

Two key archaeological developments trace the polis’s emergence:

1. Rural Sanctuaries as Territorial Markers: The 8th-7th centuries saw a proliferation of border sanctuaries marking polis boundaries. At Corinth’s remote Perachora sanctuary (established early 8th century), dedications of gold, jewelry, and faience transformed it into one of Greece’s wealthiest sanctuaries by the 7th century, proudly marking Corinth’s territorial limits.

2. Urban Space Organization: After 700 BCE, previously scattered village cemeteries consolidated outside settlement areas, creating clear divisions between living spaces and burial grounds. By the late 6th century, the agora (public gathering space) became distinctly separated from residential areas, signaling the political community’s unification.

The Orientalizing Revolution (8th-7th Centuries BCE)

Greek culture underwent dramatic changes through contact with Egypt and the Near East:

– Artistic Transformation: Geometric pottery designs gave way to naturalistic motifs featuring exotic animals and plants from the East
– Metalwork: Bronze shields with Assyrian-style hunting scenes appeared in Crete
– Sculpture: The kouros (standing male nude) statue type emerged, inspired by Egyptian models but adapted to Greek tastes
– Writing: Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet around 800 BCE, with earliest inscriptions appearing by 775 BCE

This cultural exchange occurred through extensive Mediterranean trade networks, particularly via Phoenician merchants who connected Greece with the Near East. The debate over Al-Mina (a Syrian settlement with abundant Euboean pottery) exemplifies scholarly discussions about direct Greek presence versus Phoenician intermediaries in these exchanges.

Western Expansion: Greek and Phoenician Colonization

From 770 BCE onward, Greeks and Phoenicians established hundreds of western Mediterranean settlements:

– Greek Colonies: Concentrated in southern Italy and eastern Sicily (e.g., Pithecusae, Metapontum, Massalia)
– Phoenician Colonies: Focused on Spain and North Africa (e.g., Gadir, Carthage, Motya)

These colonies followed different models:
– Phoenician “maritime urbanization” maintained trading posts without territorial control
– Greek colonies like Metapontum aggressively claimed agricultural land, displacing local populations

Cultural Impact on Indigenous Populations

Colonization transformed western Mediterranean societies:

– Iberia: Tartessian elites adopted Phoenician burial customs and luxury goods
– Celtic Europe: Hallstatt chieftains (e.g., at Vix and Heuneburg) imported Greek wine and drinking vessels
– Etruria: Developed sophisticated urban culture blending Greek influences with local traditions

By 500 BCE, the Mediterranean had become an interconnected cultural sphere from Tyre to Gadir, Massalia to Euboea.

The Persian Threat and Greek Identity

The 6th century saw growing panhellenic identity through:
– International athletic competitions (Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian Games)
– Shared mythological heritage tracing all Greeks to King Hellen
– Collective opposition to Persia after the Ionian Revolt (499-494 BCE)

When Darius’ empire expanded to include Ionian Greek cities, their 499 BCE rebellion (supported by Athens and Eretria) triggered the Persian Wars. Despite Athens’ victory at Marathon (490 BCE), Persia prepared for a massive invasion by 481 BCE under Xerxes, setting the stage for the epic confrontations of the early 5th century.

This transformative period (800-480 BCE) witnessed Greece’s evolution from Dark Age communities to sophisticated city-states facing the greatest empire the world had yet seen – a crucible that would forge classical Greek civilization.