The Ottoman Empire at the Dawn of the 19th Century

By the early 1800s, the Ottoman Empire remained a formidable power, controlling vast territories stretching from the Danube principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia through Bosnia, Serbia, and Montenegro, down to Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, and the Aegean islands. Beyond Europe, its domains included Anatolia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine, the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, and the North African coast as far as Tunisia. However, cracks were beginning to show in this once-mighty empire.

The shifting global economy had moved trade routes away from the Middle East toward the Atlantic, leaving the Ottomans economically disadvantaged. European military advancements outpaced Ottoman capabilities, while rampant corruption and decentralized governance weakened the Sultan’s authority. Regional warlords like Ali Pasha of Ioannina—an Albanian ruler who controlled much of Greece and Macedonia—operated as semi-independent powers, further eroding Istanbul’s control.

The Spark of Greek Revolution

The Greek War of Independence (1821–1830) began as a nationalist uprising against Ottoman rule but quickly escalated into an international crisis. Inspired by Enlightenment ideals and the revolutionary fervor sweeping Europe, Greek nationalists formed the secret society Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) in 1814. Their leader, Alexander Ypsilantis, a Russian officer, sought to provoke war between Russia and the Ottomans to secure Greek liberation.

Initial revolts in Moldavia and Wallachia faltered, but the uprising in the Peloponnese gained momentum. Greek peasants, Orthodox clergy, and disaffected Ottoman officers joined forces, launching brutal attacks on Muslim populations. The Ottomans retaliated with equal ferocity—hanging the Orthodox Patriarch in Constantinople and massacring Christians in cities like Thessaloniki. The conflict soon drew international attention, particularly after the 1822 Chios massacre, where Ottoman forces slaughtered tens of thousands of Greeks, an event immortalized in Eugène Delacroix’s harrowing painting The Massacre at Chios.

International Intervention and the Battle of Navarino

European public opinion, inflamed by Romantic philhellenism, rallied to the Greek cause. Volunteers like Lord Byron traveled to Greece, while governments faced pressure to act. By 1827, Britain, France, and Russia—despite their rivalries—signed the Treaty of London, demanding an armistice. When the Ottomans refused, the allied fleet under Admiral Codrington destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian navy at Navarino Bay, a decisive blow that crippled Ottoman naval power.

Russia then declared war, advancing deep into Ottoman territory. Fearing complete collapse, the European powers negotiated a settlement: Greece would gain independence as a small monarchy, while Russia expanded its influence in the Danubian principalities. The 1830 London Protocol formalized Greece’s sovereignty, though its borders were far smaller than Greek nationalists desired.

The Legacy of Mahmud II and Ottoman Reforms

Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) faced simultaneous threats—Greek rebellion, Russian invasion, and internal dissent. His most radical reform was the 1826 abolition of the Janissaries, the once-elite corps that had degenerated into a corrupt obstacle to modernization. After crushing their revolt, Mahmud established a modern army, but the empire’s decentralization persisted.

The Greek revolt also destabilized other regions. In Serbia, Miloš Obrenović exploited Ottoman weakness to secure autonomy, while Bosnia’s Muslim elites rebelled against concessions to Christian Serbs. These conflicts underscored the empire’s fragility and the rising tide of nationalism.

Cultural Impact and the Birth of Modern Greece

The war reshaped European identity. Philhellenism, fueled by admiration for ancient Greece, merged with liberal ideals, making the conflict a symbol of liberty versus tyranny. Artists, poets, and intellectuals—from Delacroix to Victor Hugo—championed the cause, while governments balanced idealism against realpolitik.

Greece’s first governor, Ioannis Kapodistrias, attempted to build a modern state but was assassinated in 1831 amid factional strife. The Great Powers then imposed a foreign monarchy, installing Bavarian Prince Otto as king. Despite instability, Greece became a beacon for nationalist movements across the Balkans.

Conclusion: A Precarious Balance

The Greek War of Independence marked the beginning of the Ottoman Empire’s long decline and the rise of nationalist movements in Europe. It tested the Vienna System, revealing both the power of liberal ideals and the limits of international cooperation. For the Ottomans, the loss of Greece was a harbinger of further disintegration, while for Europe, the conflict affirmed the enduring struggle between empire and nation-state—a dynamic that would define the 19th century.