The Gathering Storm: France Under Charles X

The stage for the July Revolution was set during the tumultuous reign of Charles X, the younger brother of the ill-fated Louis XVI. Having witnessed firsthand the events that led to his brother’s downfall during the French Revolution, Charles X governed with a mixture of paranoia and absolutist conviction. His appointment of Jules de Polignac as chief minister in August 1829 created immediate tensions with the liberal majority elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1827.

Charles X saw any political opposition as existential threats to the monarchy itself. “The first concession my unfortunate brother made was the signal for his ruin,” he famously warned his ministers, revealing his uncompromising stance. This attitude reached a boiling point on March 2, 1830, when the king delivered a combative speech to the deputies, threatening to take “necessary measures” if they opposed him. In a moment rich with symbolism, Charles’s hat fell to the ground during his impassioned address, rolling to the feet of the Duke of Orléans, Louis-Philippe – a man whose family had embraced revolutionary ideals.

Constitutional Crisis and Colonial Diversions

The political crisis escalated rapidly when 221 deputies passed an address demanding Polignac’s dismissal. Instead of compromising, Charles X dissolved the Chamber and called new elections, only to see liberals win an even greater majority (274 seats against 143 for the government). Facing domestic humiliation, the king sought to bolster his prestige through foreign adventure – a pattern that would become familiar in French history.

In a calculated diversion, Charles X declared war on Algeria after its ruler struck the French consul with a fly whisk. The swift conquest of Algiers within three weeks (June-July 1830) temporarily boosted royal prestige, but this colonial success would have unintended consequences. The deployment of 40,000 troops to North Africa left Paris dangerously undermanned when domestic unrest erupted.

The July Ordinances and Popular Uprising

On July 25, 1830, Charles X and Polignac issued four sweeping ordinances that effectively staged a constitutional coup:
– Instituted strict press censorship
– Dissolved the newly elected Chamber
– Reduced the electorate by 75%
– Called new elections under these restricted rules

These July Ordinances provoked immediate resistance. Printers whose livelihoods were threatened by censorship led protests joined by students, Napoleonic veterans, and workers suffering from three years of poor harvests and high bread prices. The streets of Paris erupted with cries of “Down with the Bourbons!” as crowds smashed street lamps and pelted Polignac’s carriage with stones.

The Three Glorious Days

The revolution unfolded over three dramatic days:

July 27: Marshal Marmont’s troops fired on protesters at the Palais-Royal, creating martyrs whose bodies were paraded through Paris.

July 28: Protesters adopted innovative tactics, building barricades from cobblestones, furniture, and overturned carts – a technique that would become standard in 19th century Parisian uprisings. Veterans of Napoleon’s army provided military leadership using weapons kept from their service days.

July 29: After entire regiments defected, royal forces retreated to the Tuileries and Louvre. The aged diplomat Talleyrand famously declared: “Five minutes past noon on July 29 – the elder branch of the Bourbons has ceased to reign.”

The Orléanist Solution

Fearing republican sentiment among the crowds (who chanted “Long live Napoleon!” and “Long live the Republic!”), liberal politicians like Adolphe Thiers and banker Jacques Laffitte orchestrated a constitutional monarchy solution. They persuaded Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans, to accept the throne under revised constitutional arrangements. In a masterstroke of political theater, the Marquis de Lafayette presented Louis-Philippe on the balcony of the Hôtel de Ville wrapped in a tricolor flag – symbolically linking the new regime to both revolution and national unity.

Charles X, seeing his support evaporate, abdicated on August 2 and went into exile, eventually dying of cholera in 1836 in Gorizia, then part of the Austrian Empire.

Reforms and Realities of the July Monarchy

The new regime implemented significant but measured reforms:
– Revised the Charter to eliminate hereditary peerages
– Removed royal power to suspend laws
– Granted legislative initiative to both chambers
– Abolished press censorship
– Reduced Catholicism from state religion to “religion of the majority”
– Expanded the electorate (though still only 5% of adult males)

Louis-Philippe consciously modeled his “King of the French” title (not “King of France”) on Britain’s constitutional monarchy. His first government included symbolic figures from across the political spectrum: Lafayette (Revolution), Marshal Gérard (Empire), and François Guizot (Restoration).

Revolutionary Echoes Across Europe

The July Revolution sent shockwaves across the continent:

Belgium: Inspired by Paris, Belgians rose against Dutch rule in August, winning independence by 1831 under Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.

Germany: Protests erupted in multiple states, leading to constitutional reforms in Brunswick, Saxony, and Hanover before Metternich’s repression.

Italy: Carbonari revolts in Modena, Parma and the Papal States were crushed by Austrian intervention.

Poland: The November Uprising (1830-31) against Russian rule, though ultimately unsuccessful, drew inspiration from Paris.

Switzerland: Multiple cantons implemented liberal reforms expanding suffrage and press freedoms.

Portugal: The Liberal Wars (1828-34) saw Pedro IV overthrow his absolutist brother Miguel.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The July Revolution represented a pivotal moment in European history:

1. It marked the first major breach in the Vienna Settlement of 1815.

2. Demonstrated the power of urban popular movements against restored monarchies.

3. Established the “bourgeois monarchy” model that balanced revolution and stability.

4. Inspired reform movements across Europe, particularly the British Reform Act of 1832.

5. Began France’s second colonial empire with the conquest of Algeria.

6. Introduced street barricades as a revolutionary tactic.

Though less radical than 1789, the July Revolution proved that the revolutionary genie could not be permanently contained by the Congress system. Its mixed legacy – expanding political participation while maintaining property qualifications – reflected the contradictions of liberal constitutionalism in the early industrial age. The Orléanist monarchy’s eventual downfall in 1848 would demonstrate that 1830 had settled some questions while leaving others fatally unresolved.