The Twilight of the Qing Empire

As the 19th century drew to a close, the Qing Dynasty found itself in a precarious position. Foreign powers had humiliated China in the Opium Wars, unequal treaties chipped away at sovereignty, and internal rebellions like the Taiping Uprising had drained imperial resources. Against this backdrop, Empress Dowager Cixi—the de facto ruler of China for nearly half a century—faced mounting pressure to reform.

Though often remembered for her conservatism during the failed 1898 Hundred Days’ Reform, Cixi demonstrated surprising pragmatism in her final years. Following the disastrous Boxer Rebellion and the court’s humiliating flight from Beijing in 1900, even her harshest critics acknowledged her renewed determination to modernize China.

Educational Revolution: Breaking Centuries of Tradition

One month before the imperial court returned to Beijing, Cixi initiated what would become her most enduring legacy: education reform. In a radical departure from Confucian tradition, she ordered the selection of young Manchu boys to study abroad, particularly in Western nations. These students were tasked with acquiring modern knowledge to serve the Qing government upon their return.

More dramatically, in August 1902, Cixi abolished the centuries-old civil service examination system—a pillar of Chinese governance since the Han Dynasty. In its place emerged Western-style schools teaching modern subjects. By 1907, Beijing alone had 17 schools admitting female students, including aristocratic Manchu women who attended a special school within the Forbidden City. Cixi personally funded a girls’ school focused on calligraphy and embroidery, reflecting both progress and lingering traditionalism.

The new examination system for returned students, implemented in 1906, revealed the depth of Cixi’s reforms. Candidates answered sophisticated questions in foreign languages, tackling subjects like:
– The distinctions between philosophy, science, and ethics
– John Stuart Mill’s theories and their scientific applications
– Essays debating compulsory education in China

For a ruler with limited formal education herself, these reforms demonstrated remarkable vision.

Constitutional Missions and Political Reform

Cixi’s most ambitious political initiative came in 1905 with the dispatch of a high-ranking delegation to study foreign governments. Led by the progressive Manchu princes Zaize and Duanfang, the group toured Europe and America before concluding that Japan’s constitutional monarchy offered the best model for China.

Their 120-volume report prompted Cixi to announce sweeping reforms in September 1906. However, implementation faced fierce resistance from conservative Manchu officials like Tieliang, the Minister of Revenue. When four Grand Council members threatened resignation rather than support the changes, Cixi famously retorted: “As you wish! You four are dismissed for incompetence. The Emperor and I will proceed with reforms!”

Despite her determination, structural obstacles remained. As British observer Lord Charles Beresford had noted years earlier, economic reform was more urgent than political change. The Qing treasury, drained by indemnities from the Boxer Protocol, lacked resources for meaningful modernization.

Social Reforms: Opium, Foot-Binding, and Manchu Privileges

Cixi’s late reign saw unprecedented social reforms. In 1906, she announced a ten-year plan to eradicate opium—a bold move given its role in government revenue. By 1908, officials faced dismissal for failing to quit the habit, while palace staff caught smoking faced 100 lashes and banishment.

Other measures included:
– The 1902 ban on foot-binding (though enforcement remained inconsistent)
– Lifting restrictions on Han-Manchu intermarriage
– Ending the segregation of Manchu garrisons in cities
– Allowing Manchus to pursue commerce rather than relying on state stipends

Ironically, these were precisely the reforms Cixi had blocked during the 1898 reforms she suppressed.

The Limits of Reform

For all her late-life progressivism, Cixi remained cautious. When Prince Qing and his son Zaizhen proposed abolishing the entire Eight Banners system, she accused them of radicalism. The prince, terrified, offered to resign—only to be showered with birthday gifts by a conciliatory Cixi.

This episode revealed her governing style: reformist yet balanced, willing to challenge tradition but unwilling to dismantle the Manchu power structure entirely. Unlike the idealistic Emperor Guangxu, whose 1898 reforms failed from over-ambition, Cixi pursued gradual change—though time ran out before her death in 1908.

Legacy: Too Little, Too Late?

Historians debate whether Cixi’s reforms could have saved the Qing Dynasty had they come earlier. Her educational initiatives bore fruit—many returned students, like the writer Lu Xun, would shape modern China—but political changes stalled. The promised constitution only materialized in 1911, as revolution swept the country.

Yet in her final decade, the once-conservative empress dowager emerged as an unlikely reformer. By dismantling the examination system, challenging social customs, and dispatching students abroad, she laid groundwork for China’s turbulent modernization. That these efforts failed to preserve the dynasty speaks less to Cixi’s leadership than to the immense challenges facing late imperial China. In the end, even her pragmatism couldn’t outpace history.