Fire has been both a vital resource and a devastating force throughout human history. While modern societies rely on professional fire departments equipped with advanced technology, ancient civilizations also developed sophisticated systems to combat fires. In China, organized firefighting dates back thousands of years, evolving from rudimentary measures to highly structured urban fire brigades. This article explores the origins, innovations, and lasting legacy of China’s early firefighting efforts.

The Origins of Firefighting in Ancient China

Long before the term “firefighting” (消防) was borrowed from Japan in the modern era, China had its own systems for fire prevention and control, known as “火政” (fire administration). Historical records reveal that as early as the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046–771 BCE), the government appointed officials specifically responsible for fire management.

By the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the role of fire prevention was integrated into urban security. The “执金吾” (zhí jīn wú), a high-ranking officer, oversaw both public safety and fire control in the capital. This position was so prestigious that Liu Xiu, the future Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han, famously aspired to it in his youth. Under the zhí jīn wú, neighborhood watchtowers (“街亭”) functioned as combined police and fire stations, monitoring their districts for both crime and fire hazards.

The Tang Dynasty: Innovations in Fire Suppression

During the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), the zhí jīn wú system was replaced by “武侯铺” (wǔ hóu pù), specialized guard posts that also handled fire emergencies. These posts were equipped with an early form of firefighting technology: the “水袋” (water bladder). Made from stitched ox or goat hide, these bladders could hold up to three or four “石” (a traditional unit of measure, roughly 60 liters). A long bamboo tube attached to the bladder allowed firefighters to direct water precisely at flames—a significant improvement over bucket brigades.

The Song Dynasty: Birth of Professional Fire Brigades

The Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) marked a turning point with the establishment of China’s first dedicated fire brigades, known as “潜火铺” (qián huǒ pù). These units were strategically stationed on high ground in cities, where they operated from “望火楼” (watchtowers) that stood over nine meters tall. From these towers, sentinels used flags by day and lanterns by night to signal fire locations—one flag for the outer city, two for the inner city, and three for fires near the imperial palace.

The qián huǒ pù were remarkably well-equipped, carrying tools such as:
– Water buckets and scoops
– “麻搭” (má dā)—a brush-like tool for smearing fire-retardant mud on walls
– Axes, saws, and ropes for controlled demolition
– “唧筒” (jī tǒng)—an early pressurized water pump made of bamboo

The jī tǒng, described in the military manual Wujing Zongyao, functioned like a syringe, using suction and compression to shoot water at a distance. This innovation remained China’s most advanced firefighting tool until the Qing Dynasty, when Japanese-style “fire pumps” were introduced.

Firefighting Tactics: From Water to Demolition

When fires broke out, qián huǒ pù responders followed a tiered approach:
1. Direct Water Application: Buckets and bladders for small fires.
2. Barrier Methods: Using firewalls (blank masonry walls) or mud-coated barriers to contain flames.
3. Controlled Demolition: If flames were unstoppable, teams would tear down buildings in the fire’s path to create firebreaks. Homeowners whose properties were destroyed for public safety could even file for government compensation, as recorded in the Song Huiyao Jigao.

Firefighters wore numbered vests to prevent looting and used wet felt cloaks for personal protection—a precursor to modern fireproof gear.

Cultural and Social Impacts

Urbanization in ancient China necessitated organized firefighting. Cities like Kaifeng and Hangzhou, with their dense wooden architecture, were particularly vulnerable. The state’s investment in fire brigades reflected broader priorities in public welfare and urban planning.

Fire prevention also influenced architecture. “封火墙” (firewalls) became common in Ming and Qing Dynasty buildings, especially in southern China, where they evolved into the iconic “horse-head walls” of Huizhou-style homes.

Legacy and Modern Relevance

Many principles from ancient Chinese firefighting endure today:
– The concept of fire watchtowers lives on in modern fire lookout stations.
– Controlled demolition is still a last-resort tactic in wildfire management.
– Early tools like the jī tǒng foreshadowed pressurized fire hoses.

Perhaps most remarkably, the Song Dynasty’s compensation system for fire-related property damage mirrors contemporary disaster relief policies.

Conclusion

From the zhí jīn wú of the Han Dynasty to the highly organized qián huǒ pù of the Song, China’s ancient firefighting systems demonstrate ingenuity and adaptability. These early efforts laid groundwork not only for modern fire services but also for broader concepts of urban safety and communal responsibility. As we dial “119” for emergencies today, we continue a tradition of organized fire response that began millennia ago.