The Meiji era was a time of profound transformation in Japan—a period when the nation rapidly modernized, absorbing Western knowledge and institutions to forge a new national identity. Among the architects of this change was Mori Arinori, a figure whose intellectual journey mirrored the turbulent currents of his time. Once a fervent advocate of democratic ideals and Western-style enlightenment, Mori later became a zealous nationalist, promoting state authority and emperor worship. This article explores Mori’s life, his pivotal role in Japan’s modernization, and the complex factors that shifted his worldview from liberal reformer to ardent nationalist.
Japan on the Brink: The Late Tokugawa Turmoil and the Rise of Reformist Thought
By the mid-19th century, Japan was a feudal society under the Tokugawa shogunate, marked by a rigid social hierarchy and enforced isolation from the outside world. However, internal pressures and the arrival of Western powers—especially after Commodore Perry’s expedition in 1853—exposed the shogunate’s weaknesses and sparked calls for change.
The anti-foreigner “Sonno Joi” movement gained traction, particularly in powerful southwestern domains like Satsuma. This domain initially resisted Western influence, even engaging in conflict with Britain in 1863, which culminated in the bombardment of Kagoshima. The heavy losses convinced Satsuma’s leaders that isolation and hostility to foreign powers were no longer viable strategies. Instead, they pivoted toward embracing modernization and international engagement, laying the groundwork for the eventual Meiji Restoration.
Into this milieu was born Mori Arinori in 1847, a son of a lower-ranking samurai family in Satsuma. Mori’s early life was shaped by the debates and upheavals of the period, and he became a beneficiary of the new reformist vision that sought to learn from the West to strengthen Japan.
The Overseas Education: Western Enlightenment and Mori’s Intellectual Awakening
In 1865, at the age of eighteen, Mori was among a select group of young Satsuma retainers secretly dispatched to Britain to study Western civilization. This journey was as much a physical voyage across the vast oceans as it was an intellectual odyssey into modernity.
Mori’s reflections on the voyage reveal a contemplative spirit: “Crossing the boundless sea was the most exhilarating experience. For days, no land was visible; above was the dome of the sky, below the vast water. The absence of worldly noise and clutter created a peaceful, dreamlike state among the passengers.”
Settling in London, Mori enrolled at University College London, a hub for international students and a beacon of liberal thought. His predecessors included prominent Japanese figures like Ito Hirobumi, who had also studied there, and decades later, Mohandas Gandhi would attend the same institution. Mori absorbed the principles of the British legal system and political order, deeply impressed by the rule of law as the foundation of national governance. He famously stated that law is the “foundation of the nation” and that blending Western legal principles with Japan’s traditions was essential for building a just and stable society.
During his studies, Mori also forged a close friendship with Herbert Spencer, a renowned British philosopher and educator known for his advocacy of social progress and liberal education, further shaping Mori’s reformist ideals. Later, Mori continued his education in the United States, where he immersed himself in science, modern civilization, and even adopted Christian beliefs.
Returning to a New Japan: Challenges in a Time of Transition
Mori’s return to Japan in 1868 coincided with the dawn of the Meiji Restoration, which overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate and restored imperial rule. The new government was eager to modernize and centralize authority, but it faced the daunting task of reconciling centuries of tradition with the demands of a modern state.
At just 21, Mori was appointed to several governmental positions, including a foreign affairs role and representative in the newly formed deliberative assembly. He championed ambitious reforms, such as abolishing the samurai’s exclusive right to carry swords, which symbolized their privileged status and social dominance.
This proposal was radical. For centuries, the samurai class had been the ruling elite, their swords emblematic of their honor and authority. Ordinary citizens were expected to show deference by stepping aside and lowering their gaze. Mori argued that eliminating this privilege was necessary to create a society based on equality and modern law rather than inherited status.
However, Mori’s reform ideas met fierce resistance from conservative factions who viewed them as threats to Japan’s “soul” and social fabric. The privileged samurai and their allies perceived the abolition of sword-carrying as an attack on Japan’s identity and the emperor’s traditional authority.
Political infighting and opposition marginalized Mori, and he was reassigned abroad as Japan’s envoy to the United States—a position considered a demotion at the time. Yet, Mori’s vision would partially vindicate itself: two years later, the government enacted the “Hair-Cutting and Sword-Abandonment Order,” which prohibited samurai from wearing swords and mandated Western-style hairstyles, symbolizing Japan’s break with feudal customs and embrace of modernization.
The 1889 Imperial Constitution Ceremony: The Birth of Modern Emperor Worship
One of Mori’s most enduring legacies was his role as Japan’s first Minister of Education from 1885 until his assassination in 1889. In this capacity, he was instrumental in shaping national education policies and fostering a sense of unity around the emperor.
A landmark moment occurred on February 11, 1889, the day the Meiji Constitution was promulgated. After the official ceremony, Emperor Meiji attended a military parade at the Aoyama drill grounds. For the first time in Japan’s long history, the crowd erupted in cheers of “Banzai!” as the imperial carriage passed by. Previously, the populace had been required to observe solemn silence during imperial processions, reflecting a distant and almost untouchable status of the emperor.
This spontaneous fervor transformed the emperor from a remote figurehead into a living symbol of the nation’s unity and destiny. The cheers galvanized popular support and reinforced the emperor’s authority as more than a constitutional monarch—it made him a near-divine figure in the public imagination.
Mori Arinori was the architect behind this new ritual of imperial veneration. His nationalist convictions had grown stronger, and he believed that a centralized, emperor-centered identity was crucial for Japan’s survival amid the pressures of modernization and Western imperialism.
The Shift Toward Nationalism: From Liberal Reformer to State Architect
Mori’s transformation from a Western-educated liberal to a staunch nationalist is emblematic of the contradictions in Meiji Japan’s modernization. His early enthusiasm for democracy and freedom gave way to a belief that strong state control and social unity under the emperor were essential to safeguard Japan’s independence.
Several factors contributed to this ideological evolution:
1. Political Realities and Resistance: Mori experienced firsthand the limitations of liberal reform in a society still deeply rooted in hierarchy and tradition. Repeated setbacks and opposition from conservatives may have convinced him that gradualism was insufficient.
2. National Security Concerns: Japan’s vulnerability to Western imperial powers heightened the urgency for national cohesion. Mori and his contemporaries viewed a strong, centralized state as a defense against colonization.
3. Cultural Identity and Modernization: While embracing Western technology and institutions, Mori sought to preserve and elevate uniquely Japanese cultural elements, particularly the imperial institution, to foster national pride.
4. Education as a Tool of State Building: As Education Minister, Mori implemented policies that emphasized loyalty to the emperor, moral education, and the inculcation of patriotic values, laying the groundwork for Japan’s modern civic identity.
Legacy: Mori Arinori’s Enduring Impact on Modern Japan
Mori Arinori’s life encapsulates the complexities of Japan’s transition from feudal isolation to modern nationhood. His early embrace of Western liberalism and later dedication to nationalism reflect the tensions between individual freedom and collective identity that many societies face during modernization.
His reforms in education created a centralized system that promoted literacy, civic responsibility, and reverence for the emperor, shaping generations of Japanese citizens. The ritualization of imperial worship, including the public acclamation of the emperor, contributed to the ideological foundation of the Japanese state until the end of World War II.
Yet, Mori’s story also serves as a cautionary tale about the compromises reformers make and the unpredictable paths of political ideologies. His shift from enlightenment to nationalism underscores how intellectual ideals can be reshaped by historical circumstances and political exigencies.
Conclusion: Understanding Mori Arinori in Historical Perspective
Mori Arinori remains a pivotal figure in Japan’s modernization narrative. His journey from a young scholar fascinated by Western democracy to a minister who championed imperial nationalism reflects the broader dynamics of Meiji Japan’s rapid transformation.
By examining Mori’s life, we gain insights into the challenges of reconciling tradition with progress, the role of education in nation-building, and the creation of modern political identities. His legacy invites reflection on the complex interplay between ideas and power, and how historical actors navigate the demands of their times.
In the end, Mori Arinori’s transformation was not just personal but emblematic of Japan’s struggle to define itself on the world stage—balancing the allure of Western modernity with the imperative of national unity and sovereignty.