The question Fukuzawa Yukichi posed—”Do the Chinese want a government of the country, or a country of the government?”—resonates far beyond the borders of East Asia. It touches on the fundamental tension that has shaped China’s modern history: the relationship between the state and its people, and whether government serves the nation or subsumes it. Although Fukuzawa Yukichi was Japanese, his ideas and legacy offer profound insights into the struggles of modernization, national identity, and civic responsibility that shaped not only Japan but also influenced neighboring countries like China.
This article explores the life, ideas, and enduring impact of Fukuzawa Yukichi, a towering figure often called the “Father of Modern Japanese Education” and even compared to Tolstoy for his moral and intellectual influence. We will delve into his historical context, his role in Japan’s transition from a feudal system to a modern nation-state, and his pioneering advocacy for individual independence as the foundation of national strength.
Historical Context: Japan on the Brink of Transformation
In the mid-19th century, Japan was a nation caught between centuries-old feudal traditions and the inexorable pressure of Western imperialism. The Tokugawa shogunate, which had ruled Japan for over two centuries, maintained a policy of relative isolation. However, the arrival of Commodore Perry’s “Black Ships” in 1853 forced Japan to confront the need for modernization and engagement with the global order.
Amid this turbulent backdrop, Fukuzawa Yukichi emerged as a unique thinker and reformer. Born into a low-ranking samurai family, Fukuzawa was profoundly influenced by Western learning, which he accessed through the limited channels available during the late Edo period. His role in the shogunate’s foreign affairs bureau as a translator of diplomatic documents positioned him at the intersection of Japan’s old order and the new world.
Fukuzawa Yukichi’s Early Career: A Reformist Within the System
Initially, Fukuzawa was a “systemic reformist” working within the confines of the Tokugawa government. He believed Japan could and should embrace “civilization and enlightenment” to stand as an equal among Western powers. His efforts to translate foreign texts and disseminate Western knowledge were part of a broader campaign to reform Japan’s institutions gradually.
Yet, Fukuzawa’s faith in the shogunate waned as its corruption and inability to respond effectively to the changing world became apparent. By 1867, on a diplomatic mission to the United States, he openly expressed his conviction that the shogunate must be overthrown, calling it corrupt to the core. His critique was especially scathing on the shogunate’s contradictory stance on “expelling the barbarians” (jōi), noting how investments in coastal defenses were ironically meant to keep foreigners out while the government itself was incapable of genuine reform.
The Controversy of “Eating the Rice Bowl While Breaking the Pot”
Fukuzawa’s call for overthrowing the shogunate raised a critical ethical question among his contemporaries: Was it not hypocritical to enjoy the benefits provided by the very government one sought to dismantle? This dilemma, often summarized as “eating the rice bowl while breaking the pot,” challenged Fukuzawa’s integrity and loyalty.
His response was both pragmatic and revolutionary for its time. He argued that his employment was not a favor but a reflection of his unique skills—his ability to understand Western languages and ideas. Drawing an analogy to a leather worker repairing shoes, Fukuzawa suggested that his role was merely functional and that serving the government did not imply blind loyalty. If the government was corrupt, it deserved to be toppled, regardless of individual affiliations.
This stance underscored Fukuzawa’s commitment to personal independence and his rejection of feudal loyalty structures. He saw the individual as an autonomous agent with duties and rights separate from the state apparatus.
Fukuzawa Yukichi’s Vision: Independence as the Foundation of National Strength
Perhaps Fukuzawa’s most enduring contribution was his articulation of the relationship between individual freedom and national sovereignty. Influenced by Western social contract theory, he advocated for a balance of power between citizens and government. His writings, especially in the work “An Encouragement of Learning” , emphasized that “the independence of one person is related to the freedom and independence of the nation.”
This insight foreshadowed similar ideas espoused by Chinese intellectuals decades later, such as Hu Shih, who famously declared that personal freedom and dignity were inseparable from national freedom and dignity. Fukuzawa’s insistence on cultivating “free and independent” citizens was a call to break the chains of feudal subservience and build a society where individuals were responsible participants in governance.
He famously distinguished between the government and the nation, insisting that citizens had both rights and duties within their country, and that passivity or blind reliance on government was unacceptable. This perspective challenged the prevalent view that governance was a top-down affair and laid the intellectual groundwork for participatory citizenship.
Rejecting Government Office: A Model of Civic Integrity
Despite his advocacy for overthrowing the old regime, Fukuzawa was no revolutionary in the narrow political sense. He remained focused on education, scholarship, and the dissemination of knowledge. When the Meiji government, which succeeded the shogunate, invited him to take official government posts, he declined.
Fukuzawa’s refusal reflected his broader philosophy. He questioned the social norm that equated officialdom with honor and success. To him, such attitudes were symptoms of a “slave mentality” that stifled independence and creativity.
His response to government officials who tried to persuade him was telling: “I do not understand why I should be praised for doing what everyone ought to do. The rickshaw puller pulls the rickshaw, the tofu shop sells tofu, and the scholar studies—that is their duty. If performing one’s duty merits special praise, then we should start by praising the tofu shop next door.”
By embodying this ethic, Fukuzawa provided a model for citizenship that valued personal responsibility over hierarchical status and emphasized the importance of self-respect and self-reliance.
Cultural Impact: Shaping Japan’s Modern Identity
Fukuzawa Yukichi’s influence on Japanese society was profound and multifaceted. His founding of Keio University created an institution dedicated to cultivating modern, independent-minded citizens. His writings popularized Western ideas of democracy, science, and human rights at a time when Japan was scrambling to define its future.
His image on the highest denomination of Japanese currency—the 10,000 yen bill—attests to his enduring legacy. In everyday language, the 10,000 yen note is often called a “Fukuzawa,” symbolizing the respect and recognition he commands across generations.
Beyond education, Fukuzawa’s philosophy helped shape Japan’s transition from a feudal society to a modern nation-state predicated on individual rights and responsibilities. His insistence on independence and rationalism influenced Japan’s political and social reforms during the Meiji era and beyond.
Legacy and Lessons for Modern Governance
The issues Fukuzawa Yukichi grappled with—the balance between government authority and individual freedom, the role of citizens in nation-building, and the pursuit of modernization without losing cultural identity—remain relevant today. His question about whether people want a government of the country or a country of the government echoes in contemporary debates on governance, democracy, and civil society.
Fukuzawa’s life exemplifies the power of ideas to transcend political office. Although he never held government power, his intellectual leadership laid the foundation for Japan’s remarkable modernization and inspired future generations to value education, independence, and civic virtue.
For modern readers and policymakers, Fukuzawa’s example offers enduring lessons: the importance of cultivating an informed and independent citizenry, the need to challenge outdated hierarchies, and the recognition that a nation’s strength ultimately derives from the freedom and responsibility of its people.
Conclusion: Fukuzawa Yukichi as a Beacon of Modernity and Civic Freedom
Fukuzawa Yukichi’s journey from a translator in a declining feudal government to a pioneering educator and thinker illustrates the complexities and possibilities of national transformation. His clear distinction between the government and the nation, his rejection of blind loyalty, and his advocacy for individual independence remain powerful contributions to the discourse on nationhood and governance.
As nations around the world continue to wrestle with the relationship between state power and citizen rights, Fukuzawa’s vision continues to inspire. His life reminds us that true modernization is not merely about technology or institutions, but about cultivating free, responsible individuals who can shape their country’s destiny.
In an era when the question “What do people want—the government of the country or the country of the government?” remains as urgent as ever, Fukuzawa Yukichi’s legacy offers a guiding light toward a society where government serves the nation and its people, not the other way around.