Introduction: A Turbulent Era of Religious Conflicts in Late Qing China

In the latter half of the 19th century, the Qing Dynasty faced a series of severe challenges from within and without. One particularly thorny issue was the frequent violent clashes between Chinese locals and Christian missionaries, alongside their converts. These conflicts, such as the infamous Tianjin Massacre of 1870 and the Gengshen Incident, threatened both domestic stability and international relations. The Qing court, deeply alarmed by these events, recognized the urgent need for a systematic solution to prevent further outbreaks of violence.

In 1871, the Qing government, through its Zongli Yamen , undertook a pioneering but ultimately unsuccessful effort to draft a formal set of missionary regulations—known as the “Missionary Regulations.” This article explores the historical background that led to this initiative, the content and ambitions of the regulations, the internal debates within the Qing administration, and the reasons for the eventual failure of this attempt at diplomatic and social reform.

Historical Context: From Tianjin Massacre to the Gengshen Incident

The mid to late 19th century was a period of intensified missionary activity in China, largely driven by Western imperial powers seeking to spread Christianity and extend their influence. The arrival and expansion of Christian missions often clashed with local customs, social structures, and religious beliefs. These tensions escalated into violent confrontations, which were sometimes exacerbated by the perceived protection that missionaries received under unequal treaties.

One of the most notorious episodes was the Tianjin Massacre of 1870, where rumors and misunderstandings led to the killing of several French Catholic missionaries and converts by angry mobs. This incident triggered a diplomatic crisis between China and Western powers, exposing the fragile balance between sovereign control and foreign privileges granted to missionaries.

Following Tianjin, the Gengshen Incident further underscored the need for clear and enforceable guidelines governing missionary activity. The Qing court realized that sporadic measures and vague treaty clauses were insufficient to prevent such conflicts, which threatened to spiral into broader international confrontations.

The Qing Court’s Response: Zeng Guofan’s Counsel and Imperial Concern

At the end of 1870, Zeng Guofan, a respected statesman and military leader, had just stepped down as Governor-General of Zhili province and traveled to Beijing to report to Empress Dowager Cixi and the Tongzhi Emperor. Among the topics discussed was the persistent problem of missionary-related conflicts.

Zeng Guofan attributed these conflicts to a combination of factors: churches and missionaries allegedly mistreated non-Christian locals, missionaries shielded their converts from legal consequences, and local officials lacked the authority or will to restrain these excesses. He advised that any future treaty revisions with foreign powers must include strict regulations on missionary activities to prevent abuses and clarify responsibilities.

The Empress Dowager, still shaken by the Tianjin Massacre, did not want to delay action. She ordered the Zongli Yamen to study the issue and propose practical measures immediately rather than waiting for future treaty negotiations.

Drafting the Missionary Regulations: A Landmark Attempt at Self-Directed Treaty Diplomacy

In early 1871, the Zongli Yamen, with officials such as Wenxiang and Shen Guifen leading the effort, produced a document known as the “Missionary Regulations.” The core objective was to formalize rules governing missionary conduct, limiting causes of friction and providing clear procedures to handle disputes without escalating into international incidents.

The regulations consisted of eight principal articles:

1. Churches were forbidden from establishing infant care centers; such care was to be managed by local authorities.
2. Women were not allowed inside churches, and female nuns were prohibited from missionary work in China.
3. Missionaries were subject to local government jurisdiction and could not intervene in legal cases.
4. Legal proceedings were to follow established procedures, without additional compensation demands; missionaries could not shelter converts who committed crimes.
5. Missionaries granted passports to preach in specific provinces were forbidden from traveling to other provinces without authorization and had to pay taxes honestly.
6. Churches had to register their converts with local officials annually.
7. Missionaries had to respect Chinese legal and administrative systems and were forbidden from exceeding their authority.
8. Land purchases for churches required local government approval, including consideration of geomantic factors, with property titles clearly stating church ownership and forbidding use of aliases.

Beyond these main points, the regulations included detailed provisions: for example, missionaries were only allowed to adopt children who were Christian converts, and had to register these adoptions with officials. Missionaries were prohibited from defaming Chinese religious practices, and converts were exempted from certain community expenses but not from mandatory public service or taxation. The regulations emphasized transparency and accountability by requiring regular reporting to authorities.

Ambitions Behind the Regulations: Toward a Stable and Controlled Missionary Environment

The Qing government’s fundamental goal was to bring order to the chaotic missionary situation through legal codification. By negotiating a treaty-style document, they hoped to establish a framework that would prevent future conflicts from escalating into full-blown international crises. The idea was to set clear boundaries and responsibilities so that local disputes could be resolved swiftly and fairly under an agreed protocol.

This initiative also represented a rare attempt by the Qing government to take the lead in treaty diplomacy, rather than simply responding to foreign demands. The draft regulations sought to balance Chinese sovereignty with the reality of foreign missionary presence, aiming for a “one-time solution” to the recurring conflicts.

Internal Debates: Support and Reservations within the Qing Administration

The proposed Missionary Regulations were widely praised among Qing officials for their thoroughness and potential to stabilize the situation. Ming and Zhejiang Governor-General Ying Gui commended the document’s comprehensive approach, believing it would awaken foreign diplomats to the seriousness of the issue. Shandong Governor Ding Baozhen compared it to a single book more valuable than tens of thousands of troops, highlighting its strategic importance.

Even Zeng Guofan himself lauded the regulations for clearly exposing the misconduct of foreign missionaries, calling the document “refreshingly forthright.” These endorsements reflected a consensus that the regulations represented a well-considered and necessary response.

However, some officials voiced caution. Chen Qin, acting customs official in Tianjin, warned that the regulations’ harsh portrayal of missionary misbehavior might provoke resistance from foreign powers. He recommended a more tactful approach, softening the language to protect foreign lives and property and gain wider acceptance.

Li Hongzhang, a leading statesman and diplomat, expressed skepticism about the likelihood of success. He pointed out that the French ambassador consistently sided with Catholic missionaries, and that other foreign diplomats were reluctant to offend the French. Li predicted that despite its merits, the regulations would be rejected by foreign governments.

The Aftermath: Foreign Powers’ Rejection and the Limits of Qing Diplomacy

As Li Hongzhang anticipated, the Missionary Regulations were largely ignored by Western diplomats. The document failed to gain acceptance in Europe, with many foreign governments viewing the Qing initiative as an infringement on the privileges granted to missionaries under existing treaties.

The foreign powers were unwilling to subject their missionaries to the strict controls proposed by the Qing court, especially those clauses limiting missionary movement, religious activities, and legal protections. For the Qing government, this was a bitter disappointment.

The failure of the Missionary Regulations underscored the limitations of Qing sovereignty in the face of foreign imperialism. It also revealed the complexity of managing cross-cultural tensions in a context of unequal treaties and competing interests.

Cultural and Political Impact: Lessons from a Missed Opportunity

Although the Missionary Regulations did not succeed diplomatically, their creation marked a significant moment in late Qing governance. For the first time, the Qing court attempted to proactively regulate foreign religious activities through a self-initiated treaty framework, rather than merely reacting to crises.

The regulations highlighted the Qing leadership’s awareness of the delicate balance between maintaining social order and accommodating foreign presence. The effort demonstrated a growing sophistication in Qing diplomatic strategy and legal administration, even as it exposed the empire’s vulnerabilities.

Culturally, the attempt to control missionary influence reflected broader anxieties about Western impact on Chinese society and traditions. The regulations sought to protect Chinese customs, social hierarchies, and legal norms against what was perceived as intrusive foreign interference.

Legacy: The Enduring Challenge of Missionary Conflicts in Late Qing China

The failure to implement the Missionary Regulations meant that religious conflicts continued to plague China in subsequent decades, often serving as flashpoints for anti-foreign sentiment and nationalist movements. These tensions culminated in events like the Boxer Rebellion at the turn of the 20th century, where violent anti-missionary and anti-foreigner uprisings shook the Qing regime to its core.

The 1871 Missionary Regulations remain a testament to the Qing court’s efforts to navigate the turbulent waters of international diplomacy and domestic stability during a time of profound change. While unsuccessful, they paved the way for later reforms and negotiations aimed at balancing sovereignty, foreign relations, and internal order.

Conclusion

The Qing Dynasty’s attempt in 1871 to prevent further missionary-related conflicts through the Missionary Regulations was a bold and innovative move. Rooted in a deep concern for national stability and sovereignty, and guided by experienced officials like Zeng Guofan, the regulations embodied a vision of orderly coexistence between foreign missionaries and Chinese society.

Despite internal consensus on their value, international politics and entrenched foreign privileges rendered the regulations ineffective. This episode highlights the challenges faced by the Qing Empire in reconciling tradition, sovereignty, and modernization amid the pressures of imperialism.

Understanding this historical episode enriches our appreciation of the complexities of Sino-Western interactions in the 19th century and the enduring struggle of China to assert control over its social and political destiny during a period of profound upheaval.