The Gathering Storm: Europe on the Brink of War
In 1803, tensions between France and Britain reached a boiling point. On May 18, Britain declared war on France, setting off a rapid chain of events. Napoleon, now First Consul of France, retaliated by invading Hanover—King George III’s hereditary electorate—and ordered General Édouard Mortier to harvest timber for flat-bottomed boats intended for an invasion of England. The Royal Navy responded by blockading the Elbe and Weser rivers, while Nelson tightened his grip on Toulon.
Napoleon’s ambitions were not confined to military maneuvers. He defied treaties, reoccupied strategic Italian ports like Taranto and Brindisi, and constructed massive invasion camps along the northern coast. By early 1804, his Army of the Ocean Coasts swelled to 120,000 men. Historians debate whether Napoleon truly intended to invade Britain or if this was an elaborate ruse to pressure Austria and train his forces. Yet the sheer scale of preparations—detailed in thousands of pages of logistical plans—suggests genuine intent.
The Shadow of Conspiracy: Plots and Retribution
As Napoleon consolidated power, royalist and British-backed conspiracies threatened his rule. The most infamous plot involved Georges Cadoudal, a Chouan leader, and General Charles Pichegru, a former revolutionary hero turned royalist. British intelligence officer John Wesley Wright facilitated their landing in Normandy, linking the conspiracy directly to London.
Napoleon, ever vigilant, uncovered the plot through his spy network. The revelation that General Jean Victor Moreau—France’s second-most celebrated commander—had tacitly supported the conspirators shocked him. “Moreau!” he exclaimed. “What! Moreau involved in such a scheme!” The betrayal cut deep, as Moreau had been a rival since the early days of the Republic.
The Fate of the Duke of Enghien
The conspiracy took a darker turn when Napoleon’s police falsely implicated Louis Antoine de Bourbon, the Duke of Enghien, a Bourbon prince living in exile near the French border. Despite shaky evidence, Napoleon ordered his abduction from Baden—a blatant violation of sovereignty—and a swift trial. On March 21, 1804, Enghien was executed by firing squad at Vincennes.
Europe recoiled in horror. The execution was seen as a cold-blooded act of vengeance, alienating former allies like Russia and turning intellectuals like Chateaubriand against Napoleon. Even his supporters were uneasy. “It was worse than a crime; it was a mistake,” remarked Talleyrand (or possibly Fouché). The fallout accelerated Napoleon’s push for imperial legitimacy, as he sought to solidify his rule against further threats.
The Birth of an Empire
By mid-1804, Napoleon moved decisively to transform the French Republic into an empire. The Senate, eager to stabilize the regime, proposed hereditary succession to prevent future power struggles. On May 18, Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor of the French, adopting the title with a nod to Charlemagne and Rome.
The coronation on December 2 at Notre-Dame was a masterpiece of political theater. Breaking tradition, Napoleon crowned himself, then placed the crown on Josephine’s head—a symbolic assertion of his self-made authority. The event blended revolutionary imagery with imperial grandeur, signaling both continuity and transformation.
Legacy and Historical Reckoning
Napoleon’s rise to emperor marked the culmination of his ambition, but it also sowed the seeds of future conflicts. The execution of Enghien haunted his reputation, while the imperial title drew Europe’s monarchies into renewed opposition. The British, Austrians, and Russians would soon form the Third Coalition, setting the stage for the epic confrontations of the Napoleonic Wars.
Yet Napoleon’s reforms—the Civil Code, centralized administration, and meritocratic honors like the Legion of Honour—endured long after his fall. His coronation was not just a personal triumph but a pivotal moment in the transition from revolutionary chaos to modern governance.
As his mother, Letizia Bonaparte, wisely cautioned: “If only it lasts.” History would soon answer whether Napoleon’s empire could withstand the storms he had unleashed.