The Coup of 18 Brumaire and Its Aftermath

The rain fell steadily on Monday morning, November 11, 1799 as six dragoons escorted Napoleon Bonaparte to the Luxembourg Palace. Dressed in civilian clothes, the young general entered the former Directors’ meeting room to establish a provisional Consulate government. This moment marked the immediate aftermath of the successful Coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799), which had overthrown the ineffective Directory government. Napoleon now moved swiftly to consolidate his position, recognizing that the initial victory required further political maneuvering to secure his authority.

The constitutional draft prepared by Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, one of the coup’s co-conspirators, proposed complex checks and balances that Napoleon found impractical. “This man only knows how to theorize,” Napoleon later remarked about Sieyès. “He doesn’t understand human nature or how to mobilize people. His learning always leads him into metaphysics.” This fundamental disagreement about governance would shape Napoleon’s approach to establishing his new regime.

Establishing the Provisional Consulate

During the first meeting of the three provisional consuls, Roger Ducos made the telling suggestion: “There’s no need to elect a president – you have the right to take the lead.” When Sieyès frowned at this suggestion, Napoleon proposed a compromise – the three would rotate the presidency every twenty-four hours in alphabetical order (placing himself first). He then took the large central chair previously occupied by the Directory’s president and maintained this position daily thereafter.

The propaganda machinery worked overtime to present Napoleon as France’s savior. Posters appeared across Paris describing how “twenty assassins threw themselves at my chest” during the coup, carefully omitting any mention of Ducos or Sieyès. The message resonated with war-weary French citizens who saw their victorious general as preferable to the corrupt Directory.

Crafting a New Constitution

The constitutional committee worked feverishly to produce a governing document that would satisfy Napoleon’s vision. Sieyès had initially proposed an elaborate system with a “Grand Elector” overseeing two consuls handling domestic and foreign affairs respectively – a scheme that would have made Sieyès himself a sort of philosophical king. Napoleon rejected this outright, favoring a more centralized authority.

After five weeks of intense debate, the Constitution of Year VIII emerged. Pierre Daunou, a constitutional expert and former Girondin, played a key role in drafting the document that would concentrate power in Napoleon’s hands as First Consul for ten years. The constitution eliminated Sieyès’ proposed oversight mechanisms, instead creating advisory bodies like the Council of State that would serve Napoleon’s executive authority.

Article 41 clearly stated the First Consul’s sweeping powers: to promulgate laws, appoint officials, military officers, and ambassadors, and negotiate treaties. The Second and Third Consuls, while nominally equal, received significantly smaller salaries and held far less influence. The message was clear – real power resided with Napoleon.

Consolidating Power and Ending the Revolution

To legitimize his regime and “end the revolution” (as government pronouncements stated), Napoleon implemented several popular measures:

– Converted Versailles into a hospital for wounded soldiers
– Repealed harsh laws against émigrés and personally released hostages from the Temple prison
– Established Bastille Day and the first day of the revolutionary year as public holidays
– Instituted pensions for wounded soldiers and military widows/orphans
– Allowed non-juring priests (those who refused the oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy) to return
– Ordered ten days of mourning for George Washington’s death, drawing parallels between the American leader and himself

Napoleon understood the importance of symbolic gestures. “A new government must dazzle and astonish,” he told his secretary Bourrienne. “The day it becomes ordinary and commonplace marks the beginning of its downfall.”

Building a Government of Talent

Contrary to expectations of military dictatorship, Napoleon’s government included few soldiers. Distinguished civilians like mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace (Minister of Interior), Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand (Foreign Minister), and Martin Gaudin (Finance Minister) held key positions. Gaudin, who had served every regime since Louis XVI, immediately began reforming France’s complex tax system and centralizing public accounting.

Napoleon demonstrated pragmatism in appointments, telling Finance Minister Mollien: “The art of utilizing men is much more difficult than that of employing them.” He even brought back the talented Lazare Carnot, despite having ousted him during the Coup of 18 Fructidor, appointing him Minister of War in April 1800.

The economic impact was immediate. Within a week of the coup, the franc’s exchange rate against the dollar and pound doubled. Government bonds that had fallen to 12 francs rose to 60 francs by January 1800. Within two years, Gaudin achieved a balanced budget – France’s first since the American Revolution.

The Plebiscite and Constitutional Ratification

To legitimize his rule, Napoleon organized a plebiscite in January-February 1800 for French male citizens to approve the new constitution. His brother Lucien, as Interior Minister, announced staggering results: 3,011,007 in favor with only 1,562 opposed – a mathematically improbable 99.95% approval rate.

Archival evidence reveals systematic fraud. Lucien stopped counting after three days and simply invented numbers, adding about 900,000 fake “yes” votes. The real figures likely showed about 1.55 million in favor – still a majority, though less overwhelming than claimed. Even with manipulation, the vote provided Napoleon with the democratic legitimacy he sought, though less impressive than Robespierre’s 1793 plebiscite results.

Centralizing Authority and Reforming Administration

Napoleon moved decisively to centralize power:

– Replaced over 3,000 judges and prosecutors in March 1800, removing incompetent or corrupt officials
– Established the gendarmerie (military police) and expanded it to 16,500 men to combat rural banditry
– Created the Bank of France on February 13, 1800 to stabilize the financial system
– Abolished local democracy established in 1790, appointing prefects to administer departments
– Reduced the number of newspapers from 73 to 13 to control opposition voices

The administrative reforms proved effective. Within three years, travel became safe again and commerce revived across France – achievements that won Napoleon more popular support than his military victories.

Cultural Changes and Symbolic Gestures

Napoleon understood the power of symbols and language:

– Replaced revolutionary “citizen” with traditional “monsieur” and “madame”
– Restored Christmas and Easter celebrations
– Renamed the Place de la Révolution as Place de la Concorde
– Removed red Phrygian caps from church steeples and public buildings
– Encouraged émigrés to return (eventually allowing about 90% back by 1803)

He also moved into the Tuileries Palace on February 19, 1800 – the first ruler to occupy it since Louis XVI’s removal in 1792. Josephine took Marie Antoinette’s former apartments, while Napoleon occupied the king’s rooms, decorating them with statues of his heroes: Alexander, Caesar, Hannibal, Washington, and others.

Dealing with Opposition

Napoleon combined conciliation with firmness against threats:

– Offered amnesty to Chouans (royalist rebels in western France) who surrendered arms
– Executed rebel leaders like Louis de Frotté when they continued fighting
– Refused Louis XVIII’s request to restore the monarchy, warning it would require “walking over 100,000 corpses”
– Systematically reduced the number of political émigrés on prohibited lists from 100,000 to 1,000 by 1802

His approach to governance blended elements from across the political spectrum. As he told former representative François Beyts: “For nearly ten years, partisanship has spawned countless parties…The simple title of French citizen is more precious than all of them.”

Preparing for War

Despite his domestic reforms, Napoleon recognized that military victory remained essential to securing his position. As Austria prepared to renew hostilities in spring 1800, he wrote to General Moreau: “Today I’m somewhat like a model, having lost my liberty and happiness…I’d willingly exchange my consular position for your rank of brigade general.” Within weeks, Austrian victories would give Napoleon his chance to return to the battlefield and cement his reputation as France’s indispensable leader.

The period from November 1799 to spring 1800 demonstrated Napoleon’s remarkable ability to consolidate power, implement reforms, and establish the foundations for his future empire – all while maintaining a veneer of republican legitimacy. As Talleyrand observed: “If he lasts a year, his power will be long-lasting.” Napoleon had not only survived his first year – he had transformed France’s political landscape.