The Revolutionary Emperor and His New Nobility

Napoleon Bonaparte’s vision for post-revolutionary France involved creating a meritocratic aristocracy that would serve as the “granite rocks” supporting his imperial system. Between 1808-1814, he created 3,263 imperial nobles—59% military officers, 22% civil servants, and 17% notable figures including scientists and artists. This new elite represented a dramatic reduction from the ancien régime’s 40,000 nobles, with only 1 noble per 10,000 French citizens by 1814 compared to 7 per 10,000 in 1789.

The Emperor justified this system by claiming it preserved revolutionary equality before the law while rewarding service to the state. As he told Cambacérès: “The French people fought only for equality before the law… My institution isn’t aristocratic because it carries no privileges or inheritance.” Titles could only pass to heirs if the state approved their qualifications—a system resembling Britain’s life peerages (not formalized until 1958).

The Iberian Tinderbox

Napoleon’s interference in Iberia began with Portugal’s refusal to join his Continental System against Britain. By November 1807, General Junot’s forces had occupied Lisbon, forcing the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil. Meanwhile, Spain’s corrupt government under Prime Minister Godoy and the feuding Bourbon monarchs (King Carlos IV and his son Ferdinand) presented an irresistible target.

The Emperor exploited these divisions through the 1807 Treaty of Fontainebleau, which secretly planned to partition Portugal while positioning French troops throughout Spain. When popular uprisings overthrew Godoy in March 1808 (the Aranjuez Mutiny), Napoleon saw his opportunity. He summoned the Spanish royals to Bayonne, where through a series of coerced abdications (May 1808), he transferred the Spanish crown first to himself, then to his brother Joseph.

The Spark of Rebellion

On May 2, 1808, Madrid erupted in rebellion against French occupation—an event immortalized in Goya’s paintings The Second of May and The Third of May 1808. Marshal Murat’s brutal suppression (150 Spanish casualties followed by mass executions) ignited a nationwide uprising. Key figures like Colonel Palafox in Zaragoza declared war, while regional juntas organized resistance.

The French suffered shocking defeats, most notably at Bailén (July 1808) where General Dupont surrendered 18,000 troops—the first major French field army capitulation since 1793. By August, British forces under Sir Arthur Wellesley (future Duke of Wellington) landed in Portugal, defeating Junot at Vimeiro. The Convention of Cintra allowed the French army’s evacuation, marking Portugal’s liberation.

Napoleon’s Personal Intervention

Arriving in Spain in November 1808 with 130,000 veteran troops, Napoleon achieved rapid successes:
– December 1808: Victory at Somosierra Pass (notable for a heroic Polish cavalry charge)
– December 4: Recapture of Madrid

However, his strategy of defeating regular armies and occupying capitals proved ineffective against:
1) Guerrilla Warfare: 35,000-50,000 irregular fighters harassing supply lines
2) British Intervention: Wellington’s forces providing a regular army nucleus
3) Terrain: Poor roads and mountainous landscapes negating French mobility

When news arrived in January 1809 of Austrian rearmament, Napoleon departed Spain—never to return.

The Bleeding Wound

The Peninsular War became Napoleon’s “Spanish Ulcer”:
– Manpower: 250,000 French casualties (1808-1814)
– Economic Drain: Spain stopped its 5 million franc monthly payments to France
– Prestige Damage: The myth of French invincibility shattered at Bailén

British support proved decisive:
– £2.65 million annual aid to Spanish/Portuguese forces
– Wellington’s army never exceeded 60,000 but provided strategic anchor

Legacy of a Miscalculation

Napoleon later admitted: “That unfortunate war destroyed me… All my disasters are tied to that fatal knot.” The conflict:
1) Diverted critical resources from other fronts
2) Demonstrated nationalist resistance could defeat imperial armies
3) Inspired anti-French movements across Europe

The Emperor’s attempt to impose his revolutionary model on Spain—abolishing the Inquisition, feudal privileges, and introducing constitutional government—foundered on the rocks of Spanish nationalism and Britain’s naval-backed intervention. As Wellington observed: “Napoleon’s presence on the battlefield was worth 40,000 men”—but in Spain, even his genius couldn’t overcome geography, logistics, and popular resistance.

The Peninsular War previewed Napoleon’s eventual downfall: an empire overextended, fighting multiple fronts against enemies learning to avoid direct confrontation with his main armies. Spain became the first crack in the imperial edifice that would collapse in 1814.