The Strategic Imperative for North Africa

By late 1942, the Axis powers dominated much of Europe and North Africa. Following the British victory at El Alamein in October, Rommel’s Afrika Korps retreated westward, joining other German and Italian forces in Tunisia. Recognizing the need to open a second front and relieve pressure on the Soviets, Allied leaders conceived Operation Torch—a large-scale amphibious invasion of French North Africa.

The operation aimed to secure key ports in Morocco and Algeria, prevent Axis reinforcement through Spain, and establish a base for future offensives. General Dwight Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Commander, with British Admiral Andrew Cunningham overseeing naval forces. The plan called for simultaneous landings at Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers on November 8, 1942.

The Landings: Triumphs and Trials

### Algiers: Diplomacy and Daring
The Eastern Task Force, comprising Anglo-American troops, faced minimal resistance due to secret negotiations with Vichy French officers. Despite initial chaos—including misdirected landing craft—Allied forces secured the city within hours. A critical breakthrough came when Admiral François Darlan, persuaded by U.S. diplomat Robert Murphy, ordered a ceasefire.

### Oran: A Costly Lesson
The Center Task Force’s assault on Oran met fierce resistance. A bold attempt to storm the harbor with two British cutters (HMS Walney and HMS Hartland) ended disastrously; both ships were sunk with heavy casualties. However, pincer movements from inland eventually forced French surrender on November 10.

### Casablanca: Patton’s Gambit
The Western Task Force, led by General George Patton, navigated rough seas and inexperience to land at Safi, Fedala, and Mehdia. Though delayed, Patton’s troops overcame coastal artillery and French naval sorties. The fall of Casablanca on November 11 marked a decisive victory, aided by Darlan’s ceasefire order.

The Race for Tunisia

With Morocco and Algeria under Allied control, attention turned to Tunisia. Hitler, initially dismissive of the threat, rushed reinforcements via Sicily. By November 9, German paratroops seized Tunisian airfields, complicating Allied advances. Brutal winter weather and stiff Axis resistance stalled the British First Army’s progress, allowing Rommel’s forces to consolidate.

### Kasserine Pass: A Humbling Defeat
In February 1943, Rommel outmaneuvered inexperienced U.S. forces at Kasserine Pass, inflicting 6,000 casualties. The defeat spurred reforms in American command, with Patton and Omar Bradley revitalizing the II Corps.

### Victory at Last
By April, Allied coordination improved. The British Eighth Army broke through the Mareth Line, while U.S. forces pushed eastward. On May 7, Tunis and Bizerte fell. Trapped on the Cape Bon peninsula, 275,000 Axis troops surrendered—the largest capitulation since Stalingrad.

Legacy: A Foundation for Allied Success

Operation Torch reshaped the war’s trajectory:
– Strategic Shift: The Mediterranean became an Allied stronghold, enabling the invasions of Sicily and Italy.
– Lessons Learned: Deficiencies in U.S. combat readiness led to tactical overhauls before D-Day.
– Political Ramifications: The collapse of Vichy France’s African holdings weakened Nazi influence in the region.

Though overshadowed by later campaigns, Torch demonstrated Allied coalition-building and set the stage for victory in Europe. As Eisenhower reflected, “It was the furnace in which our armor was tempered.”

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