The Fall of the Ming and the Rise of Southern Resistance

The year 1645 marked a critical juncture in China’s dynastic transition as Qing forces consolidated their control over former Ming territories. Following the fall of Beijing in 1644 and the suicide of the Chongzhen Emperor, loyalist movements emerged across southern China. In Southern Anhui (then called Nanzhili), a remarkable coalition of Ming officials, local gentry, and common citizens launched what would become one of the most organized resistance efforts against the Qing conquest.

This uprising unfolded against the backdrop of three seismic events: the establishment of the Hongguang regime in Nanjing (which would collapse within a year), the implementation of the controversial Queue Order requiring Han Chinese to adopt Manchu hairstyles, and the enthronement of the Longwu Emperor in Fujian. The resistance in Southern Anhui represented not just military opposition, but a cultural stand against the imposition of foreign customs and governance.

The Spark of Rebellion: Leaders and Early Victories

The movement began when Jin Sheng, a former Chongzhen-era military censor from Xiuning County, joined forces with Jiang Tianyi to raise troops in Huizhou Prefecture. Their call to arms found immediate resonance among local populations resisting the Queue Order. Within weeks, their ranks swelled with notable Ming loyalists: Qiu Zude (former Shandong governor), Yin Minxing from Jing County, Zhu Shengnong, and Wu Yingqi from Shitai County.

Between June and July 1645, these forces achieved remarkable successes, reclaiming multiple counties that had previously submitted to Qing authority. They liberated Qingyang, Shitai, Jiande, Dongliu, Ningguo, and Jingde counties, effectively reducing Qing control in Southern Anhui to just a handful of territories around Taiping Prefecture. The speed of their advance demonstrated both popular support and Qing vulnerability in the region.

Upon learning of the Longwu Emperor’s ascension in Fuzhou, Jin Sheng dispatched messengers to announce their victories. The emperor responded enthusiastically, appointing Jin as Right Vice Censor-in-Chief and Vice Minister of War with authority over military affairs in Nanzhili. This official recognition transformed the local resistance into a legitimate Ming restoration effort.

The Qing Counteroffensive and Brutal Suppression

Alarmed by these developments, Qing commanders Zhang Tianlu and Yu Yongshou launched coordinated campaigns to crush the uprising. The tide began turning on July 9 when Yin Minxing’s forces suffered defeat at Nanling County. Despite this setback, popular resistance remained fierce, particularly in Ningguo Prefecture where, as Qing reports noted, “rebellious commoners filled the lands outside the prefectural city.”

A pivotal moment came on August 12 when combined loyalist forces besieging Xuancheng (Ningguo’s administrative seat) were decisively defeated. The capture of strategist Qiu Zude dealt a severe blow, followed days later by the fall of Jing County where Qing forces executed over 3,000 militia members. These brutal reprisals reflected the Qing determination to eliminate resistance through overwhelming force.

The Fall of Huizhou and the Martyrs’ End

By September, Qing commander Zhang Tianlu implemented a pincer movement against Huizhou Prefecture. On September 20, his forces captured Jixi County and apprehended Jin Sheng attempting to flee. The subsequent surrender of Huizhou’s prefectural seat on September 22 marked the beginning of the end. Within weeks, Yixian, Qimen, and Wuyuan counties submitted to Qing authority.

The final acts of resistance proved equally dramatic. Wu Yingqi continued recruiting troops until his capture and death from battle wounds on October 13. Jin Sheng and Jiang Tianyi were transported to Nanjing, where they were executed on October 18 after defiantly refusing to submit. Contemporary accounts describe Jin’s memorable confrontation with Hong Chengchou, the Ming-turned-Qing commander, where Jin publicly shamed the defector for betraying his former dynasty.

Cultural Significance and Lasting Legacy

Beyond its military dimensions, the Southern Anhui uprising represented a cultural stand against the Queue Order’s symbolic erasure of Han identity. The widespread refusal to shave foreheads and braid hair became acts of political defiance, transforming personal grooming into resistance. This cultural dimension explains why the movement garnered such broad popular support despite its eventual military failure.

The resistance also demonstrated the continued potency of Ming loyalism among scholar-officials. Figures like Jin Sheng embodied the Confucian ideal of unwavering loyalty (zhong), even in the face of certain death. Their actions inspired subsequent resistance movements, including those led by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) in Fujian.

Historical Assessment and Modern Relevance

While ultimately unsuccessful, the 1645 uprising significantly delayed Qing consolidation in Southern Anhui, buying time for the Longwu regime to organize in Fujian. The resistance’s collapse also marked the end of large-scale organized opposition in the region, allowing the Qing to focus on eliminating remaining Ming holdouts elsewhere.

Modern historians debate whether the movement’s failure resulted from military shortcomings or broader structural factors. Some emphasize Qing military superiority and the defection of key figures like Huang Shu (allegedly responsible for Huizhou’s fall). Others highlight the challenges of coordinating disparate loyalist groups across mountainous terrain.

Today, the uprising remains commemorated in Anhui as an example of regional resilience. The martyrs’ steadfastness continues to inspire cultural productions, while scholars examine the episode for insights into early Qing governance challenges and the complex dynamics of dynastic transition.

The 1645 Southern Anhui resistance ultimately represents more than a military campaign—it was a multifaceted struggle where cultural identity, political loyalty, and regional autonomy converged in one of the most compelling chapters of China’s turbulent mid-17th century.