The Fall of the Ming and the Qing Invasion of Zhejiang

The year 1645 marked a pivotal moment in Chinese history as the newly established Qing dynasty consolidated its control over former Ming territories. In June of that year (the second year of the Shunzhi reign), Prince Lu surrendered to Qing forces, leading to the occupation of Hangzhou, the provincial capital of Zhejiang. Numerous counties quickly followed suit, submitting to Qing authority. The Qing authorities then issued the infamous “hair shaving order” in early intercalary June, mandating that all Han Chinese men adopt the Manchu hairstyle as a sign of submission.

This policy proved deeply offensive to Han Chinese cultural traditions, where preserving one’s hair intact was considered a fundamental Confucian virtue tied to filial piety. The forced hairstyle change, combined with other oppressive measures like commandeering civilian roads for military use, created widespread resentment. As one contemporary account described: “People protected their hair, causing turmoil in the streets; when county officials received orders to clear roads for cavalry, public anxiety grew even worse.”

The Spark of Rebellion: Anti-Qing Uprisings Across Eastern Zhejiang

The forced hairstyle mandate became the flashpoint for organized resistance. On the 9th day of intercalary June, former Ming official Sun Jiji launched an uprising in Yuyao, killing the Qing-appointed county magistrate Wang Xuanru. This was quickly followed by:

– On the 10th: Scholar Zheng Zunqian’s rebellion in Shaoxing
– On the 12th: Anti-Qing movements in Ningbo

What distinguished these Zhejiang uprisings from other Ming loyalist movements was their grassroots nature. Unlike the more organized Longwu regime in Fujian, the Zhejiang resistance emerged after local elites had already surrendered to the Qing. The movement’s core members came primarily from lower-ranking Ming scholars and mid-level officials rather than the traditional power structure.

Zheng Zunqian and the Shaoxing Uprising

The story of Zheng Zunqian exemplifies the passionate resistance. His father Zheng Zhiyin, a former judicial commissioner, had traveled to Hangzhou to submit to Qing rule and adopt the Manchu hairstyle. Defying his father, Zheng Zunqian rallied like-minded patriots with the stirring declaration: “There is still hope for our cause! I wish to raise an army of righteousness—what say you?”

Gathering several thousand supporters, Zheng declared himself the “Righteousness-Raising Marshal” and executed the Qing-appointed Shaoxing prefect Zhang Se and county magistrate Peng Wanli. When local gentry pleaded poverty to avoid contributing funds, Zheng famously rebuked them: “You enjoyed high positions and generous salaries for decades. Now with our country destroyed and emperor lost, you still wish to hoard your wealth in comfort?” His father’s dramatic plea—kneeling and begging his son to spare the family from destruction—failed to sway Zheng’s resolve.

The Ningbo Resistance and the “Six Mad Scholars”

In Ningbo, the uprising took a different character. After Qing collaborators Zhu Zhikui and Kong Wenya were installed as local administrators, scholar Dong Zhining initiated resistance efforts. Along with five other scholars—later dubbed the “Six Mad Scholars”—they sought support from local elites but were repeatedly rejected.

A pivotal moment came when they approached former Ming official Xie Sanbin to lead the movement. Xie refused, scoffing: “The situation is like an egg beneath a boulder—aren’t you afraid of death?” The scholars then turned to former justice ministry official Qian Sule to lead. At a dramatic meeting at the City God Temple on the 12th, they publicly tore up the name cards of the Qing officials and declared Qian their leader, sparking jubilant support from thousands of local residents.

Military Developments and the Formation of the Lu Regime

The resistance gained critical momentum when military leaders switched sides. Wang Zhiren, the former Ming naval commander who had initially surrendered to the Qing, was persuaded to join the rebellion after an intense diplomatic effort. His defection stabilized the Ningbo situation and influenced other regions.

By late June 1645, eastern Zhejiang had become a hotbed of resistance with uprisings in Cixi, Fenghua, and other counties. The movement lacked centralized leadership until Ming loyalists rallied around Zhu Yihai, the Prince of Lu—the only remaining Ming prince in Zhejiang who hadn’t surrendered.

On the 18th of intercalary June, prominent officials like Zhang Guowei petitioned Zhu to become “Supervisor of the State.” He formally assumed this role in Shaoxing on July 18th, establishing what became known as the Lu Regime, with plans to adopt a new reign era the following year.

The Contradictions of the Lu Regime

The Lu Regime embodied both the promise and problems of late Ming resistance:

Administrative Structure:
– Appointed traditional Ming ministries and officials
– Granted military titles to key resistance leaders
– Created a semblance of Ming imperial continuity

Internal Challenges:
– Competing with the better-established Longwu regime in Fujian
– Struggles between “righteous armies” and professional military forces
– Financial disputes over troop support and supplies

Leadership Issues:
– Zhu Yihai’s personal limitations as a sheltered aristocrat
– Corruption among royal relatives like the queen’s brother Zhang Guojun
– Inclusion of questionable figures like the opportunistic Xie Sanbin

Contemporary accounts paint a mixed picture of Zhu Yihai. While he demonstrated personal courage in maintaining anti-Qing resistance, his court was criticized for its decadence. One observer described banquets with “the prince drumming his cheeks, opening his lips, and beating time with chopsticks” while officials and actors became indistinguishable in their drunken revelry.

Military and Financial Strains

The regime’s military situation highlighted its structural weaknesses:

– Professional commanders like Fang Anguo and Wang Zhiren monopolized resources
– Grassroots “righteous armies” received inadequate support
– Disputes over revenue collection paralyzed logistics

As scholar-official Dong Shouyu warned: “Dividing provisions and territories is wrong. All regular taxes should go to the revenue ministry, which then allocates funds based on troop numbers and strategic needs.” However, the military commanders prevailed, taking direct control of Zhejiang’s tax revenues—starving the volunteer forces that had initiated the resistance.

The Legacy of Zhejiang’s 1645 Resistance

Though ultimately unsuccessful, the 1645 uprisings represent several important historical themes:

1. Cultural Resistance: The movement demonstrated how cultural policies (like the hair shaving order) could backfire by galvanizing opposition.

2. Grassroots Mobilization: Showed how mid-level scholars and local leaders could organize resistance even after official power structures had surrendered.

3. Ming Loyalism’s Contradictions: Revealed the tensions between popular resistance and the limitations of Ming imperial restoration efforts.

4. Regional Dynamics: Highlighted how local conditions shaped variations in anti-Qing resistance across different areas.

The Zhejiang uprising’s failure—like other Ming loyalist movements—stemmed from internal divisions, leadership shortcomings, and inability to reconcile competing interests. Yet its passionate defense of cultural identity and the sacrifices of figures like Zheng Zunqian remain poignant reminders of this turbulent transition period in Chinese history.

As historian Wen Ruilin reflected: “Most Ming gentry cared only for profit, status, and their families. Did they truly grieve for their sovereign or country? When rebels came they surrendered to rebels, when bandits came they surrendered to bandits… To them, righteous men were just oddities.” This critique captures the tragic gap between the self-serving elites and the idealistic resisters who fought for their vision of Ming restoration.