The Turbulent Backdrop of Early Qing Rule

The mid-17th century marked a period of profound upheaval in China as the newly established Qing dynasty (1644–1912) sought to consolidate power over territories formerly ruled by the Ming. In Gansu province, a strategic corridor along the Hexi Corridor, tensions simmered among local communities—particularly the Hui Muslim population—who faced oppressive policies under Manchu rule. The region’s complex demographics, including Han Chinese, Hui, and Tibetan groups, further fueled discontent.

Key figures emerged against this backdrop: Milayin (米喇印), a hereditary Hui chieftain and former Ming military officer, and Ding Guodong (丁国栋), his lieutenant. Both had served under the Ming and later the short-lived Shun dynasty of Li Zicheng before reluctantly submitting to Qing authority. Their rebellion in 1648 was not an isolated act but part of a broader wave of resistance against Qing consolidation, echoing contemporaneous movements like the Southern Ming loyalists and peasant uprisings in Sichuan.

The Spark and Spread of Rebellion

In March 1648, Milayin and Ding Guodong launched their revolt, exploiting the Qing’s distraction with campaigns elsewhere. Their forces swiftly captured Ganzhou (Zhangye), Liangzhou (Wuwei), and Suzhou (Jiuquan), executing Qing officials like Governor Zhang Wenheng and General Liu Liangchen. The rebels then marched east, seizing Lanzhou and killing local magistrates, before expanding into Linxia, Hezhou, and Min County.

A notable aspect of the rebellion was its multi-ethnic coalition. While Hui Muslims formed the core, Han Chinese joined the ranks, united by resentment toward Qing policies. The rebels even proclaimed loyalty to the Ming by installing Zhu Shichuan, a purported Ming royal, as a figurehead—though his capture and execution by Qing forces weakened this symbolic claim.

Qing Counteroffensive and the Rebellion’s Collapse

Alarmed by the revolt’s rapid spread, the Qing court dispatched General Tunqi and Handai to suppress the rebellion. However, Meng Qiaofang, the governor of Shaanxi, opted for local forces under Ma Ning and Esei to avoid logistical strain. The tide turned in April 1648 when Qing troops recaptured Taozhou and besieged Lanzhou.

A decisive battle at Shuiquanzi (near modern Yongchang) in May 1648 saw Milayin killed in combat. Ding Guodong retreated to Ganzhou and Suzhou, holding out until early 1649 when Qing forces under Zhang Yong and Ma Ning stormed the cities. Ding and his deputy Hei Chengyin were captured and executed, marking the rebellion’s end.

Cultural and Social Repercussions

The rebellion revealed deep fractures in Qing governance. The Hui community’s grievances—ranging from economic exploitation to religious suppression—were central, but the participation of Han Chinese underscored broader anti-Qing sentiment. The revolt also highlighted the Qing’s reliance on local collaborators like Ma Ning, a Hui turncoat whose defection proved pivotal.

Notably, the rebellion’s Ming loyalist rhetoric resonated beyond Gansu, aligning with wider resistance movements. However, its failure accelerated Qing efforts to tighten control over the northwest, including stricter surveillance of Muslim communities and the dismantling of hereditary local offices like those held by Milayin.

Legacy and Historical Reflections

Though often overshadowed by larger anti-Qing movements, the 1648 Gansu Rebellion remains significant for several reasons:

1. Multi-ethnic Resistance: It challenges simplistic narratives of “Hui separatism,” illustrating how shared grievances transcended ethnic lines.
2. Qing Consolidation: The rebellion’s suppression demonstrated the dynasty’s growing military efficiency but also its reliance on divide-and-rule tactics.
3. Modern Memory: In contemporary China, the revolt is sometimes framed as a precursor to later Hui uprisings, though its context as part of a broader anti-Manchu struggle is increasingly acknowledged.

Archival records, such as Meng Qiaofang’s reports and local gazetteers like the Ganzhou Prefectural Records, offer nuanced insights. Yet discrepancies in sources—like conflating the rebellion with later events—highlight the challenges of reconstructing this history.

Conclusion

The 1648 Gansu Rebellion was more than a regional conflict; it was a microcosm of the Qing dynasty’s struggle to unify a fractured empire. For historians, it underscores the interplay of ethnicity, loyalty, and resistance in China’s transition from Ming to Qing rule. For modern readers, it serves as a reminder of how local rebellions can illuminate larger historical currents—ones that shaped the course of a nation.