The Fragile Revival of the Yongli Court

The years 1648–1649 marked a critical juncture for the Southern Ming dynasty, as the Yongli Emperor’s court sought to reclaim lost territories from the Qing conquerors. Two major defections sparked hope: in January 1648, Jiangxi generals Jin Shengheng and Wang Deren switched allegiance back to the Ming, followed by Guangdong’s Li Chengdong in April. These rebellions forced the Qing to redeploy forces, notably recalling the “Three Feudatories” (Kong Youde, Geng Zhongming, and Shang Kexi) to Hubei, leaving Hunan dangerously undergarrisoned.

Hunan became the strategic linchpin. Its recapture could unite Ming-held regions in Jiangxi, Guangdong, and Guangxi, creating a contiguous resistance zone. Yet this opportunity was squandered due to the machinations of He Tengjiao, the Ming’s Supreme Commander, whose personal vendettas and incompetence derailed the campaign.

The Early Successes: A Mirage of Hope

By April 1648, Ming forces under Du Yinxi and Ma Jinzhong exploited the Qing withdrawal, recapturing Changde. Meanwhile, former Qing general Chen Youlong, once a subordinate of the turncoat Liu Chengyin, defected back to the Ming at Jingzhou. Chen’s forces, bolstered by local Miao and Yao tribesmen, launched a devastating campaign:

– April 15: Chen besieged Jingzhou, trapping Qing officials.
– April 17: His troops advanced into Guizhou, capturing Qing magistrates.
– July–August: Chen secured a string of victories—Wugang, Baoding, and finally Baoding Prefecture—earning the title “Count of Yuan’an” from the Yongli Court.

Simultaneously, He Tengjiao belatedly mobilized from Guangxi, taking Quanzhou but stalling at Yongzhou. His jealousy grew as Chen and Du’s successes overshadowed his stalled campaign.

He Tengjiao’s Sabotage: A Campaign Derailed

He Tengjiao harbored a personal grudge against Chen Youlong. When Liu Chengyin defected to the Qing in 1647, Chen had reluctantly followed orders to attack He’s hometown in Liping, resulting in the death of He’s family members. Now, with Chen a Ming hero, He conspired to eliminate him:

1. The Betrayal: He ordered general Hao Yongzhong to ambush Chen’s forces under the pretense of reinforcing them.
2. The Ambush (August 1648): Hao’s surprise attack at Jingzhou shattered Chen’s army, forcing him to flee to Guangxi.
3. Consequences: Baoding fell back to Qing control, and the momentum to retake Changsha collapsed.

He later recaptured Baoding in November, but the delay proved fatal. The Ming missed their chance to link with Jiangxi rebels, allowing the Qing to regroup.

Cultural and Political Fractures

The debacle exposed deeper rot within the Yongli regime:

– Factionalism: Officials like Qu Shisi whitewashed He’s failures in reports, backdating victories to掩盖 ineptitude.
– Scapegoating: Censor Jin Bao vilified Hao Yongzhong (a former peasant rebel) while absolving He, revealing elite bias against ex-rebel generals.
– Moral Bankruptcy: Wang Fuzhi’s contemporary account condemned He’s “victory” as a sham: “He boasted of Hao’s loyalty, while the army’s morale crumbled.”

Legacy: A Missed Opportunity with National Consequences

The Hunan campaign’s failure had cascading effects:

1. Strategic Collapse: Without Hunan, the Ming failed to consolidate southern resistance, leading to Jiangxi’s fall by 1649.
2. He’s Downfall: His reputation never recovered; he was later captured and executed by the Qing in 1649.
3. Historical Reckoning: Later historians, freed from Ming loyalist biases, reassessed He as a symbol of the Southern Ming’s self-destructive infighting.

As Qing archives reveal, even their commanders expressed astonishment at the Ming’s disarray. A July 1648 report noted: “The rebels [Ming] had every advantage, yet they fought each other instead of us.”

The 1648 Hunan campaign remains a tragic lesson in how personal ambition and factionalism can undermine even the most promising military recoveries—a cautionary tale for all collapsing regimes.