The Shattered Southern Ming and a Fragile Alliance

In the turbulent mid-17th century, as the Ming dynasty crumbled before the advancing Qing forces, a dramatic naval campaign unfolded along the Yangtze River that would test the limits of Ming loyalist resistance. Following the fall of Zhoushan in 1651, Prince Lu of the Southern Ming court fled south to Xiamen, Fujian, where his remaining forces faced an uncertain future. This moment marked a critical juncture in the resistance movement, as the charismatic Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) saw an opportunity to consolidate his power over coastal forces.

The relationship between Zheng Chenggong and Prince Lu’s commanders, particularly the stalwart Zhang Mingzhen and his strategist Zhang Huangyan, grew increasingly tense. Historical accounts reveal a telling encounter when Zhang Mingzhen met Zheng Chenggong in Xiamen. Zheng reportedly challenged Zhang’s military record, to which Zhang responded by revealing the words “Loyal Heart Serving the Country” tattooed on his back – a powerful declaration of his unwavering commitment to the Ming cause that reportedly left Zheng momentarily speechless.

Preparing the Ground: The Chongming Island Base

By August 1653, Zhang Mingzhen and Zhang Huangyan had assembled a formidable fleet of 500-600 vessels and established a crucial base at Chongming Island near the Yangtze estuary. This strategic location served as their operations center for eight months as they prepared for their daring river campaigns. Contemporary Qing documents reveal the effectiveness of their occupation, noting how Ming forces “built dikes and farmed” while the local population increasingly supported their cause, creating what Qing officials described as a dire situation where “those serving us appear weak and dying, while those serving the rebels flourish.”

The choice of Chongming proved inspired – much like Zhoushan had been for Zhejiang, this island at the Yangtze’s mouth provided both defensive security and offensive potential. Historical military maps show how the island’s position allowed control over river traffic while maintaining access to open sea, creating an ideal staging ground for what would become three dramatic incursions up China’s most vital waterway.

Three Daring Strikes Up the Yangtze

The year 1654 witnessed a series of bold naval maneuvers that would become known as the “Three Entries into the Yangtze.” Historical records of these campaigns remain frustratingly inconsistent, with even basic chronology disputed among contemporary sources. Through careful examination of Qing archives and cross-referencing with Zhang Huangyan’s poetry, modern historians have reconstructed this remarkable sequence of events.

The first campaign began on January 17, 1654, when Zhang’s fleet passed critical Qing defenses at Langshan and Fushan before reaching Zhenjiang on the 21st. In a deeply symbolic act, Zhang and 500 soldiers ascended Jinshan Hill, where they faced southeast to perform solemn rites at the distant Ming imperial tombs. Zhang composed poignant poetry on temple walls, including the famous lines: “Ten years a lone minister across the seas / Gazing toward the true aura of Zhongshan.” After three days, the fleet withdrew, having captured Qing artillery and supplies.

The second thrust came on March 29, when 600 Ming vessels pushed further upriver to Yizheng, where they burned hundreds of salt transport ships – a significant economic blow to the Qing. Contemporary accounts describe panic among Qing officials, with one censor lamenting the loss of “hundreds of salt ships and tens of thousands in merchant capital.” The strategic targeting of the salt trade, a crucial Qing revenue source, demonstrated the campaign’s economic warfare dimension.

By May, facing supply shortages, Zhang personally traveled to Fujian to secure provisions and reinforcements from Zheng Chenggong. Though Zheng promised support, tensions between the two commanders persisted. Returning north, Zhang’s forces made a dramatic appearance off Shanghai in September, causing such alarm that the Qing magistrate reportedly collapsed in fear while citizens openly welcomed the Ming fleet.

The third and most daring campaign came in December, when 400 Ming ships penetrated to Nanjing’s outskirts, reaching Yanziji on the 18th. Qing documents reveal genuine panic, with officials describing the threat to Nanjing as “perilously close.” The fleet’s ability to operate so near the former Ming capital demonstrated both naval prowess and lingering Ming sentiment in the region.

Cultural Reverberations and Psychological Warfare

Beyond military objectives, the Yangtze campaigns carried profound cultural and psychological significance. Zhang Mingzhen’s poetry at Jinshan Temple, deliberately left for public viewing, served as powerful propaganda. The solemn ceremonies honoring Ming ancestors resonated deeply with a population still adjusting to Qing rule. Contemporary accounts describe how Shanghai residents wore Ming-style headgear and openly challenged Qing authorities during Zhang’s operations.

The campaigns also revealed cracks in Qing control over the economically vital Yangtze delta. Numerous reports describe local populations aiding Ming forces, with one Qing official lamenting how Shanghai’s yamen runners nearly forced the magistrate to surrender. This grassroots support, combined with the Ming fleet’s mobility, created temporary “liberated zones” that challenged Qing narratives of inevitable conquest.

Strategic Vision and Missed Opportunities

The 1654 campaigns represented an ambitious strategic vision – to establish a sustained Ming presence along the Yangtze, potentially coordinating with other anti-Qing forces for a broader uprising. Zhang Huangyan’s later writings suggest they hoped to inspire revolts upriver while disrupting Qing supply lines. However, several factors limited their success.

The tense relationship with Zheng Chenggong meant promised reinforcements often failed to materialize. While Zheng controlled the largest Ming loyalist force, his focus remained firmly on Fujian and his own power base. Additionally, the campaigns’ reliance on naval mobility made holding territory impossible – each incursion ended with withdrawal to Chongming.

Qing responses also improved over time. After initial panic, they established better river monitoring and rapid response systems. The appointment of more capable commanders like Ma Guozhu gradually tipped the balance, though Qing documents reveal ongoing frustration with their inability to decisively defeat Zhang’s fleet.

Legacy of the Yangtze Campaigns

Though ultimately unable to reverse the Qing conquest, the 1654 campaigns left an enduring legacy. They demonstrated that Ming resistance could still threaten Qing control of China’s heartland nearly a decade after the dynasty’s formal collapse. The campaigns also highlighted the strategic potential of coordinated riverine and coastal operations – lessons later Ming loyalists would attempt to apply.

Zhang Mingzhen and Zhang Huangyan became celebrated figures of loyalty, their story inspiring subsequent generations. The famous “Loyal Heart Serving the Country” tattoo entered Chinese cultural memory as a symbol of unwavering commitment. Modern historians debate whether greater cooperation between Zhang and Zheng Chenggong might have changed outcomes, but the campaigns remain a testament to the determination of Ming loyalists during this turbulent transition between dynasties.

The 1654 Yangtze campaigns represent both the possibilities and limitations of naval power in early modern Chinese warfare. While unable to achieve decisive victory, these daring operations delayed Qing consolidation and kept alive the flame of Ming resistance for years to come, writing a dramatic chapter in China’s seventeenth-century military history.