The Rise of Zheng Chenggong and the Southern Ming Resistance

The mid-17th century was a tumultuous period in Chinese history, marked by the fall of the Ming dynasty and the consolidation of Qing rule. Amid this upheaval, Zheng Chenggong (known in the West as Koxinga) emerged as a formidable Ming loyalist, leading a determined resistance against the Manchu conquerors. By 1659, Zheng had established a powerful maritime force based in Fujian and Taiwan, leveraging naval superiority to challenge Qing dominance along China’s southeastern coast.

This campaign was part of a broader effort by the Southern Ming regime under the Yongli Emperor to reclaim lost territory. Zheng’s alliance with scholar-general Zhang Huangyan symbolized the last major coordinated attempt to reverse the Qing conquest. Their strategy hinged on a bold strike up the Yangtze River to capture Nanjing, the former Ming southern capital—a move that, if successful, could have reignited nationwide anti-Qing resistance.

The Northern Expedition: Early Victories and Strategic Gambits

In April 1659, Zheng’s fleet of over 3,000 vessels and 100,000 troops set sail from Zhejiang. The campaign opened with a brilliant feint: a fierce two-day battle at Dinghai destroyed 100 Qing warships and created the illusion of an impending attack on Ningbo. This diversion drew Qing reinforcements toward Zhejiang while Zheng’s main force stealthily advanced northward.

By May 19th, Zheng’s armada entered the Yangtze through Wusongkou. A critical advantage emerged when Qing commander Ma Fengzhi—secretly sympathetic to Zheng—refused to engage his forces. Meanwhile, Zheng’s technological edge became apparent: his ships carried an extraordinary concentration of European-style artillery, including 13 heavy “red barbarian” cannons and 45 rapid-firing “hundred-ball” guns per vessel. This firepower proved devastating in riverine combat, where traditional Qing cavalry strengths were neutralized.

The campaign’s first major success came at Guazhou on June 16th. Zheng’s forces shattered the Qing “Rolling River Dragon” defense—a chain-and-ship barrier across the Yangtze—while annihilating thousands of Manchu-Han troops. The subsequent capture of Zhenjiang on June 22nd left Nanjing virtually undefended, with nearby cities like Jurong and Liuhe defecting to the Ming cause.

The Fatal Pause: Missed Opportunities at Nanjing’s Gates

Zheng’s forces reached Nanjing’s outskirts by June 26th, but what followed became one of history’s most consequential military blunders. Rather than launching an immediate assault, Zheng adopted a passive siege strategy. Contemporary accounts reveal multiple warnings from subordinates like Gan Hui and Pan Gengzhong, who recognized the Qing’s stalling tactics when governor Lang Tingzuo requested a 30-day surrender delay.

For over three weeks, Zheng’s massive army remained inactive—holding ceremonial parades at Zhenjiang’s Ganlu Temple while Qing reinforcements streamed into Nanjing. Critical among them was Liang Huafeng’s 4,000-strong force, which marched 200 li in 36 hours to reinforce the city. By mid-July, the Qing had concentrated elite Banner troops and regional garrisons, transforming Nanjing from a vulnerable target into a fortified stronghold.

The Collapse and Its Aftermath

The Qing counterattack came on July 24th. Exploiting Zheng’s overextended positions, Liang Huafeng led a devastating sortie that routed Ming forces. Zheng lost over 400 vessels and 15,000 troops in the retreat, including elite “Iron Men” units. The defeat permanently ended Southern Ming hopes of recovering the Yangtze heartland.

In Beijing, the crisis had provoked panic—the Shunzhi Emperor reportedly threatened to lead troops personally before being dissuaded by the Empress Dowager. The psychological impact lingered; Qing authorities subsequently executed suspected collaborators like Ma Fengzhi and implemented harsh coastal evacuation policies to prevent future naval threats.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Nanjing campaign’s failure underscored the Ming resistance’s strategic limitations. While Zheng excelled at coastal warfare, his inability to adapt to land campaigns and political warfare proved fatal. The Qing, meanwhile, demonstrated remarkable resilience, effectively coordinating multi-regional forces despite initial disadvantages.

Modern historians view this episode as a turning point—it cemented Qing control over Jiangnan’s wealthiest regions and pushed Zheng toward his eventual conquest of Taiwan. The campaign also highlighted China’s military transition: Zheng’s advanced artillery foreshadowed the growing importance of naval technology, even as the Qing doubled down on traditional cavalry tactics that would later prove inadequate against European powers.

The 1659 siege remains a poignant “what-if” moment—had Zheng stormed Nanjing promptly, the Ming restoration might have gained unstoppable momentum. Instead, it became a cautionary tale about the perils of overconfidence and missed opportunities in warfare.