The Strategic Context of the Yangtze Expedition

In the summer of 1659, as the Southern Ming resistance against Qing rule entered its most desperate phase, two of its most formidable commanders launched an ambitious campaign up the Yangtze River. Zhang Huangyan, the scholar-general renowned for his knowledge of riverine warfare, joined forces with the legendary maritime leader Zheng Chenggong in what would become one of the most dramatic military operations of the late Ming resistance.

The campaign emerged from years of careful preparation. Since the fall of Beijing in 1644 and the subsequent Qing conquest of southern China, Ming loyalists had maintained resistance from coastal strongholds and island bases. Zheng Chenggong, operating from his base in Xiamen, had spent over a decade building his naval forces through what he called “gathering strength and teaching discipline.” Zhang Huangyan, meanwhile, had gained invaluable experience coordinating with land-based Ming loyalists along the Yangtze region.

The Campaign Unfolds: From Guazhou to Nanjing

The joint operation began with spectacular success. After capturing the strategic fortress at Guazhou in June 1659, the commanders faced a crucial decision about their next move. Zheng Chenggong favored a direct assault on Nanjing, the former Ming southern capital. Zhang Huangyan, however, argued forcefully for securing Zhenjiang first, calling it “the gateway to the Yangtze” whose control would prevent Qing naval forces from threatening their operations.

Zhang’s tactical brilliance shone through in his subsequent suggestion to send an advance force to Guanyin Gate near Nanjing, arguing this would force the Qing garrison to focus on defending their own city rather than sending reinforcements elsewhere. Zheng approved this plan and placed Zhang in command of the vanguard naval force. However, logistical challenges immediately arose as their large ocean-going vessels proved difficult to maneuver upriver, forcing a switch to smaller river craft that had to be laboriously towed upstream.

The Missed Opportunity at Nanjing

By late June, Zhang’s forces reached Guanyin Gate while Zheng’s main army captured Zhenjiang. Zhang urgently advised switching to land operations for faster movement toward Nanjing, but Zheng maintained his naval approach. This proved disastrous when Qing forces attacked Zhang’s isolated vanguard on July 1 with over a hundred fast attack boats. Though Zhang’s forces held their ground, the engagement revealed the growing vulnerability of their divided forces.

The campaign reached its critical turning point in early July when Zheng Chenggong finally brought his main force to Nanjing’s outskirts. At this moment, news arrived of successful uprisings in Wuhu and other upriver cities. Zheng made the fateful decision to divide their forces – assigning Zhang to consolidate control of the upper Yangtze while he besieged Nanjing. Zhang later lamented that from this point onward, “I was no longer consulted about strategic decisions.”

Zhang Huangyan’s Extraordinary Success in the Upper Yangtze

With fewer than a thousand men and under a hundred ships, Zhang Huangyan embarked on what became one of the most remarkable campaigns of the Ming resistance. His proclamation to the region’s inhabitants masterfully blended Confucian rhetoric with practical incentives, appealing to both scholars and commoners. The results were astounding – within weeks, four prefectures, three subprefectures, and twenty-four counties declared for the Ming cause, with his forces swelling to over ten thousand through local recruitment.

Zhang’s strict discipline became legendary. One incident particularly stood out – when a soldier was reported for paying only ten coins for noodles worth four times that amount, Zhang immediately ordered the man’s execution despite protests about the severity. This uncompromising stance on military conduct earned him widespread popular support, with local gentry reportedly weeping at seeing “Han official dignity” restored when Zhang conducted ceremonies in Confucian temples.

The Collapse and Heroic Retreat

The campaign’s fortunes reversed dramatically on July 24 when Zheng Chenggong suffered a catastrophic defeat at Nanjing and abruptly withdrew his forces without notifying Zhang. Stranded deep in hostile territory, Zhang sent desperate messages urging Zheng to send reinforcements and maintain their foothold, arguing “with the people’s hearts on our side, all is still possible.” These pleas went unanswered as Zheng’s fleet retreated all the way to the coast.

Facing encirclement by converging Qing forces, Zhang attempted to fight his way west toward Poyang Lake in August. His fleet engaged Qing reinforcements from Hubei at Fanchang, but when night-time cannon fire triggered panic among his already demoralized troops, the force disintegrated. Forced to abandon naval operations, Zhang led a grueling overland retreat through Anhui’s mountainous terrain, at one point being refused shelter by former allies who had switched allegiance to the Qing. After months of hardship and narrow escapes, he finally reached the coast with just two remaining companions.

Legacy of a Lost Opportunity

The 1659 Yangtze campaign represents one of history’s great “what if” moments. Zhang Huangyan’s remarkable successes upriver demonstrated the continued strength of Ming loyalism among Yangtze valley elites and commoners alike. Had Zheng Chenggong maintained his position at Nanjing or supported Zhang’s operations as originally planned, the campaign might have fundamentally altered the course of the Ming-Qing transition.

Zhang’s subsequent writings, particularly his “Record of the Northern Expedition,” provide invaluable insights into the campaign’s strategic dynamics and the personal tensions between the two commanders. The episode also highlights the organizational challenges that plagued Ming resistance efforts – brilliant tactical successes undermined by poor coordination and communication between allied forces.

Modern historians continue to debate whether the campaign’s failure resulted primarily from Zheng Chenggong’s strategic errors or reflected the inevitable triumph of Qing consolidation. What remains undeniable is the campaign’s demonstration of late Ming resistance’s enduring appeal and the extraordinary leadership of figures like Zhang Huangyan, whose strict discipline and political vision briefly rekindled hopes of restoration across southern China.