The Origins of China’s Reform Movement
The late 19th century marked a period of crisis for China’s Qing Dynasty. Following its humiliating defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the empire faced increasing foreign encroachment and internal decay. It was against this backdrop that Kang Youwei, a scholar from Guangdong province, emerged as the intellectual leader of what would become known as the Hundred Days’ Reform.
The movement’s symbolic beginning came in April 1895 when news of the Treaty of Shimonoseki’s harsh terms reached Beijing. Kang, then in the capital for the imperial examinations, rallied 1,300 fellow examination candidates to submit a petition to the emperor. This collective appeal, known as the “Public Vehicle Memorial” (referencing the government transport that brought scholars to Beijing), proposed three bold measures: rejecting the peace treaty, relocating the capital, and implementing comprehensive reforms.
Kang’s memorial presented a two-part vision:
1. Immediate Crisis Response:
– Rejecting the peace treaty with Japan
– Issuing an imperial self-criticism edict
– Moving the capital to Xi’an for security
– Military modernization and resistance
2. Long-Term National Strengthening:
– Economic modernization including railways, mining, and banking
– Agricultural reforms and commercial development
– Educational transformation with Western learning
– Political reforms toward constitutional monarchy
Though conservative officials blocked the petition from reaching Emperor Guangxu, its contents circulated widely, establishing Kang as the intellectual leader of reformist forces.
The Reform Movement Gains Momentum
Following the initial petition, reform advocates employed multiple strategies to advance their cause:
### Building Intellectual Foundations
Kang and his protege Liang Qichao established newspapers like the Chinese and Foreign News (中外纪闻) in Beijing and later the influential Current Affairs Journal (时务报) in Shanghai. Liang’s essays, particularly his General Discussion on Reform (变法通议), argued that China needed systemic political transformation beyond mere technological adoption.
### Organizational Efforts
The reformers established study societies, most notably the “Society for the Study of National Strengthening” (强学会) in Beijing and Shanghai. These groups attracted sympathetic officials, intellectuals, and even some foreign observers, though they faced suppression from conservative factions.
### Regional Centers of Reform
Hunan province emerged as a particularly active reform center under Provincial Governor Chen Baozhen. Key figures like Tan Sitong established the Southern Study Society and founded schools promoting Western knowledge. Meanwhile, in Tianjin, scholar Yan Fu introduced Social Darwinism through his influential translation of Huxley’s Evolution and Ethics, framing reform as a matter of national survival.
The Climax: The Hundred Days’ Reform
The movement reached its zenith in 1898 when Emperor Guangxu, seeking to break free from Empress Dowager Cixi’s control, launched an ambitious reform program:
### Key Reform Edicts (June-September 1898)
1. Economic Modernization: Established industrial bureaus, encouraged mining, and reformed fiscal policies
2. Political Reforms: Streamlined bureaucracy and allowed officials to submit policy proposals
3. Military Reorganization: Adopted Western training methods and equipment
4. Educational Transformation: Abolished the eight-legged essay examination format and promoted Western learning
However, conservative opposition proved formidable. Key obstacles included:
– Provincial officials ignoring reform decrees
– Empress Dowager Cixi maintaining control over military appointments
– The powerful Manchu elite resisting changes threatening their privileges
The Coup and Aftermath
The reform movement collapsed in September 1898 when Cixi launched a palace coup:
### Key Events:
– September 21: Emperor Guangxu placed under house arrest
– September 28: Execution of six reform advocates including Tan Sitong
– Reversal of nearly all reform measures
The failure stemmed from multiple factors:
1. Structural Weaknesses: The nascent bourgeoisie lacked sufficient power
2. Strategic Errors: Overreliance on the emperor without grassroots support
3. Miscalculations: Failed attempt to enlist military support through Yuan Shikai
Legacy of the Reform Movement
Despite its failure, the 1898 Reform Movement left enduring impacts:
### Intellectual Awakening
– Introduced Western political concepts like constitutional monarchy
– Challenged traditional Confucian governance models
– Inspired later reform and revolutionary movements
### Educational Transformation
– Surviving reforms like Peking University became lasting institutions
– Shift toward practical knowledge influenced later education policies
### Political Consequences
– Demonstrated the Qing regime’s inability to reform
– Paved the way for more radical revolutionary movements
Historian Joseph Levenson noted the movement’s paradox: “They wanted to change China’s values by using China’s values.” This tension between tradition and modernity would continue shaping China’s tumultuous path toward modernization in the coming century.
The 1898 Reform Movement remains a pivotal moment in China’s modern history – a bold but ultimately unsuccessful attempt to transform an ancient empire through peaceful reform rather than revolution. Its lessons about the challenges of top-down reform and the power of entrenched interests continue to resonate in studies of political change.