The Geopolitical Landscape of Early 20th Century East Asia

The dawn of the twentieth century witnessed a dramatic shift in the balance of power across East Asia. Following its surprising victory in the Russo-Japanese War , Japan emerged as the dominant regional power, having gained international recognition of its sphere of influence over the Korean Peninsula. The Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in September 1905, formally ended hostilities between Japan and Russia while implicitly acknowledging Japan’s special position in Korea. This diplomatic achievement came after both Britain and the United States had already conceded to Japan’s growing influence in Korean affairs through earlier agreements.

Korea, known at the time as the Korean Empire, found itself in a precarious position. The Joseon Dynasty had struggled to maintain its sovereignty amid increasing foreign interference throughout the late nineteenth century. The country’s leadership faced immense pressure to modernize while preserving independence, a challenge that proved increasingly difficult as imperial ambitions collided on the Korean Peninsula. Internal political instability, economic challenges, and factional struggles within the royal court further weakened Korea’s position on the international stage.

The Diplomatic Mission of Ito Hirobumi

Against this backdrop of shifting power dynamics, Japan dispatched one of its most senior statesmen to negotiate a new agreement with Korea. Ito Hirobumi, a principal architect of Japan’s Meiji Constitution and former prime minister, accepted the appointment as special envoy to Korea in November 1905. At sixty-four years of age and in declining health, Ito nevertheless recognized the critical importance of this mission to Japan’s regional strategy.

Before departing for Seoul on November 5, 1905, Ito wrote to elder statesman Matsukata Masayoshi expressing his intention to handle Korean matters with careful deliberation. His letter revealed both optimism and apprehension—he hoped to conclude an agreement smoothly while advancing Korea’s modernization, but he also acknowledged the possibility of unexpected developments that might require consultation with Japanese leadership. This correspondence, preserved in the National Diet Library’s constitutional documents collection, demonstrates Ito’s awareness of the delicate nature of his mission.

Upon arriving in Seoul on November 10, Ito commenced a series of audiences with Emperor Gojong of Korea. These meetings, occurring on November 11 and 15, set the stage for the presentation of what would become known as the Japan-Korea Agreement of 1905, commonly referred to as the Second Japan-Korea Convention.

The Contentious Negotiations

When Ito presented the draft agreement to Emperor Gojong on November 15, he encountered significant resistance. The proposed treaty centered on Japan’s assumption of control over Korea’s foreign relations, effectively making Korea a protectorate of the Japanese Empire. Emperor Gojong immediately recognized the implications of such an arrangement, drawing comparisons to Austria-Hungary—where the Austrian emperor also served as king of Hungary—and to the colonial relationships European powers maintained with African territories.

The Korean emperor argued that surrendering diplomatic autonomy would reduce Korea to an inferior status among nations. Ito countered these concerns by emphasizing that Korea would maintain its own monarch and nominal independence, distinguishing the proposed relationship from both the Austro-Hungarian model and European colonialism in Africa. This diplomatic exchange revealed fundamentally different perspectives on sovereignty and international relations.

Historical accounts from Ito’s biography describe how the Japanese statesman viewed Koreans as politically “immature” and insufficiently knowledgeable about “world trends.” While not explicitly criticizing Emperor Gojong, Ito’s assessment of Korean leadership reflected the prevailing attitudes among Japanese officials who believed themselves to be guiding Korea toward modernization according to contemporary international standards.

Faced with Korean resistance, the negotiations reached an impasse, leading to a postponement of the agreement. By November 17, Japanese officials began applying increased pressure on Korean leadership. Ito, accompanied by General Hasegawa Yoshimichi, commander of Japanese forces in Korea, visited the royal palace to persuade Korean ministers to accept the treaty.

The Midnight Agreement

The breakthrough in negotiations came with Japanese concessions to Korean concerns. The final treaty included provisions guaranteeing the “safety and dignity” of the Korean imperial household and language suggesting the arrangement would continue “until it is confirmed that Korea has achieved national strength.” These modifications addressed some of Emperor Gojong’s objections while maintaining the essence of Japanese control.

In the early hours of November 18, at approximately 1:00 AM, Japanese officials and Korean Foreign Minister Park Je-sun gathered to formalize the agreement. The signing ceremony, conducted under extraordinary circumstances, produced a treaty that would fundamentally alter Korea’s international status.

The agreement contained several pivotal provisions. First, it transferred control of Korean foreign affairs to Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Tokyo, authorizing Japanese diplomats and consuls to protect Korean citizens and interests abroad. Second, it established the position of Resident-General, a Japanese official who would reside in Seoul and oversee diplomatic matters while maintaining direct access to the Korean emperor. Additional provisions created the position of Resident officials in open ports and other designated areas, replacing previous Japanese consular functions. The treaty notably included the promised protections for the Korean imperial institution.

Immediate Reactions and Consequences

The implementation of the protectorate treaty provoked strong reactions among Koreans. Just four days after the agreement was signed, on November 22, Ito’s train was attacked while returning from a hunting excursion at Suwon Paldal Mountain. Protesters threw stones that broke windows and slightly injured the Japanese statesman. This incident, documented in Ito’s biography, illustrated the depth of Korean opposition to the agreement.

Despite this hostility, Ito remained committed to his vision for Japanese-Korean relations. In speeches delivered to Japanese communities in Seoul and Incheon on November 28, he outlined the principles that should guide the protectorate relationship. He emphasized that Japanese citizens should not insult or deceive Koreans, noting that such behavior would contradict the emperor’s wishes. He further stressed that Japanese should instruct and encourage Koreans to strengthen their nation, recognizing that mistreatment would damage Japan’s international reputation. Surprisingly, Ito expressed profound sympathy for the Korean predicament, claiming to shed “ten thousand measures of tears” for their situation.

These speeches revealed Ito’s personal commitment to assuming the role of first Resident-General of Korea, despite his advanced age and health concerns. Rather than remaining in Japan as president of the Privy Council—a prestigious and comfortable position—he believed himself uniquely qualified to implement the protectorate according to his vision, rather than leaving it to military officials associated with political rival Yamagata Aritomo.

The Ideological Framework of Japanese-Korean Relations

Ito’s public addresses following the treaty signing provide remarkable insight into the ideological justification for Japan’s Korea policy. In a speech delivered in Shimonoseki on December 3, after returning to Japan, he expanded on his vision for the relationship between the two nations. He expressed sympathy for Korean feelings about losing diplomatic and military autonomy while maintaining only nominal independence.

Significantly, Ito rejected comparisons between Koreans and colonized populations elsewhere, specifically mentioning Africans, Native Americans, and South Sea Malays. Instead, he emphasized Korea’s three-thousand-year history and literary accomplishments, acknowledging the sophistication of Korean civilization while still maintaining the need for Japanese guidance. This nuanced position reflected both respect for Korean culture and a paternalistic attitude common among Japanese leaders of the era.

Ito encouraged Japanese citizens, particularly those in Shimonoseki who frequently interacted with Koreans across the Tsushima Strait, to treat Koreans with kindness and foster mutual development through civilized exchange. This appeal for cross-cultural understanding existed alongside the reality of imposed political control, creating a complex dynamic that would characterize the subsequent period of Japanese influence in Korea.

The Protectorate in Practice

The establishment of the Resident-General system marked a new chapter in Japanese-Korean relations. Ito Hirobumi assumed the position in 1906, establishing an administration that exercised considerable influence over Korean affairs beyond the foreign policy matters explicitly mentioned in the treaty. The Residency-General became the effective governing authority in Korea, implementing reforms and policies that increasingly drew Korea into Japan’s orbit.

This period witnessed significant infrastructure development, educational reforms, and economic changes as Japan pursued its stated goal of modernizing Korea. However, these developments occurred within a framework of foreign control that limited Korean autonomy and generated ongoing resistance. The tension between modernization and independence would define the following years, culminating in Japan’s formal annexation of Korea in 1910.

Historical Assessment and Legacy

The Japan-Korea Agreement of 1905 represents a critical turning point in the history of East Asia. For Japan, it marked the culmination of decades of effort to establish regional dominance and recognition as a modern imperial power. For Korea, it signaled the effective end of sovereignty and the beginning of a period of foreign domination that would last until 1945.

Historical assessments of Ito Hirobumi’s role in this process remain complex. His personal sympathy for Korean culture and his desire for gradual, respectful modernization contrast with his implementation of policies that fundamentally undermined Korean independence. This contradiction reflects broader tensions within Japan’s imperial project, which combined genuine development initiatives with political domination.

The legacy of the 1905 agreement continues to influence contemporary relations between Japan and Korea. The memory of this period and the subsequent thirty-five years of Japanese rule remains a sensitive subject, affecting diplomatic, economic, and cultural exchanges between the two nations. Understanding the circumstances surrounding the establishment of the protectorate provides essential context for comprehending modern East Asian relations and the ongoing process of reconciliation in the region.

The events of November 1905 demonstrate how diplomatic agreements, negotiated under unequal conditions, can alter the course of nations for generations. The Japan-Korea Protectorate Treaty stands as a powerful example of how international relations, cultural perceptions, and historical circumstances intersect at critical moments, creating legacies that endure long beyond the signatories themselves.