Introduction: Unearthing China’s Bronze Age Dawn

The Erlitou culture (c. 1900-1500 BCE) represents a pivotal chapter in Chinese history, marking the transition from Neolithic village societies to Bronze Age urban civilization. Recent archaeological discoveries have revolutionized our understanding of this proto-dynastic period, revealing sophisticated agricultural systems, advanced craft specialization, and the earliest known bronze ritual vessels in East Asia. This article examines the material foundations that supported what many scholars consider China’s first state-level society.

Agricultural Innovations of the Erlitou People

### Cultivation Practices and Crop Diversity

Excavations at multiple Erlitou sites have uncovered compelling evidence of diversified agriculture. At the core Erlitou site in Yanshi, Henan province, phytolith analysis from pottery fragments in Area IX’s M14 tomb revealed rice cultivation dating to Erlitou Phase II or earlier. Floatation techniques applied to storage pit fill from Phase III contexts in Area VI yielded carbonized rice grains, while Phase II layers contained preserved millet remains.

The archaeological record shows remarkable artistic documentation of crops. A Phase II ceramic zun vessel from Area III (collected 1981) bears an intricate rice stalk motif with six detailed grains and two leaves. Similarly, a Phase III zun from Area XI (excavated 1990) displays what appears to be a wheat ear design with compact grains and long awns. These aren’t mere decorations but likely held ritual significance in an agricultural society.

Regional variations emerge from other sites:
– Guanjiaozhen’s Zaojiao village yielded rice, wheat, soybeans, sorghum and millet
– Yangzhuang in Zhumadian contained abundant rice phytoliths and carbonized grains
– Dongxiafeng in Shanxi province preserved large quantities of carbonized millet

### Storage Solutions and Food Security

The Erlitou people developed sophisticated grain storage methods. At Dongxiafeng, archaeologists uncovered:
– H417: A 7.7m long shoe-shaped vertical pit with fire-hardened walls (for moisture control), ventilation slots, and central earthen supports holding 40-73cm of carbonized millet
– H525: A circular pit containing 10cm of carbonized millet

These storage facilities demonstrate advanced understanding of food preservation techniques, crucial for supporting growing urban populations and withstanding crop failures.

### Agricultural Tools and Techniques

The toolkit reveals both innovation and continuity:
– Stone axes with polished edges
– Flat rectangular stone spades (some shouldered)
– Bone and shell spades
– Perforated stone and pottery knives
– Curved stone and shell sickles
– Wooden digging sticks (preserved as soil impressions)

Notably absent are bronze farming implements or plough evidence, suggesting agriculture remained labor-intensive rather than technology-driven. This contrasts sharply with the culture’s advanced bronze ritual vessels, highlighting a societal prioritization of ceremonial over utilitarian metal use.

Beyond Farming: Complementary Subsistence Strategies

### Animal Husbandry and Hunting

Faunal remains paint a picture of diversified protein sources:
– Dominant species: Cattle, followed by pigs, sheep, and deer
– Complete dog/pig/sheep skeletons suggest ritual deposits
– Ivory hairpins and elephant carvings indicate knowledge of pachyderms
– Varied bronze/arrowhead forms imply hunting specialization

Regional sites like Qilipu, Dongxiafeng, and Yangzhuang confirm these patterns. The prevalence of domesticated animals versus wild game remains debated, but the predominance of cattle marks a shift from earlier Neolithic preferences for pigs.

### Aquatic Resource Exploitation

The Erlitou people employed diverse fishing technologies:
– Bone fishhooks (2cm long, modern design)
– Shell fishhooks (sturdier variant)
– Barbed bone harpoons
– Bone and ceramic net sinkers (some with multiple cord grooves)
– Bronze fishhooks (1.2cm long with line notch)

Pottery and bone artifacts frequently bear fish motifs, including:
– Three fish designs on flat-bottomed basins from Palace Area I (1960s)
– Fish images on 1980 bone fragments
– Fish patterns on 1995 ceramic dazun jars and carved basin fragments

This aquatic focus suggests rivers and wetlands played vital ecological roles, complementing agricultural production.

Craft Production: The Birth of Chinese Bronze Age Technology

### Bronze Metallurgy: A Technological Revolution

The Erlitou culture represents China’s first mature bronze industry. Discoveries include:

Artifact Types:
– Ritual vessels (13 jue cups, 3 jia tripods, 1 he pitcher, 1 ding tripod)
– Musical instruments (5 bells)
– Adornments (3 animal-mask plaques, 3 circular ornaments)
– Weapons (1 yue axe, 2 ge dagger-axes)
– Tools (36 knives, 16 arrowheads, 3 fishhooks)
– Miscellaneous (chisels, awls, saws, spindle whorls)

Manufacturing Evidence:
– Near 10,000 sq.m workshop in Erlitou’s southeastern sector
– Specialized casting floors (F9: 11×6m semi-subterranean structure)
– Possible mold-preheating structure (F2 with multiple hearths)
– Advanced piece-mold casting (jue cups required 5 molds; he pitchers 7+)
– Alloy experimentation (copper-tin, copper-lead, ternary alloys)
– Tin and lead ingots as raw materials

The bronze workshop’s stratigraphy reveals fascinating ritual aspects—human burials interred within production areas, possibly reflecting metallurgical ceremonies or craftsman graves.

### Jade and Stone Craftsmanship

Erlitou jade workers produced:
– Ceremonial blades (65cm long knives with serrated edges)
– Massive zhang tablets (up to 54cm tall)
– Ge dagger-axes (43cm examples)
– Exquisite handle-shaped ornaments with taotie motifs

Technical innovations included:
– Rotary tool (toui) carving for precise geometric patterns
– Advanced lapidary techniques for large-format pieces
– Sophisticated turquoise inlay work (e.g., plaques with 300+ stone pieces)

### Other Craft Specializations

Lacquerware:
– Over 10 wine vessels (gu cups) often paired with bronze jue
– Boxes, dou stemmed dishes, bi spoons
– Red/black color schemes with taotie designs
– Possible architectural elements (11cm diameter lacquered “posthole”)

Ceramics:
– Wheel-thrown serving vessels
– Mold-made tripod legs
– Coil-built large storage jars
– Eggshell-thin pottery cups
– Possible proto-porcelain fragments
– Ceramic drainage pipes (50cm long)

Textiles:
– Hemp cloth (8×8 to 10×10 threads/cm²)
– Possible silk (up to 52×14 threads/cm²)
– Bronze/jade spindle whorls indicating prestige fiber production

Bone Working:
– Industrial-scale production evidence (VI区H5 with 12×9m waste deposit)
– Bronze saws for precise cutting (2mm kerf marks)
– Decorated pieces (fish carvings, taotie motifs)

Transportation and Exchange Networks

### Early Wheeled Transport

1994 excavations at Erlitou’s XII区 revealed:
– 40cm wide, 15cm deep wheel ruts
– 1.2m axle track width
– Extremely compacted soil from repeated use

These parallel the 1.2m gauge found at Early Shang period (1600-1400 BCE) Yanshi Shangcheng, suggesting technological continuity.

### Shell Currency and Long-Distance Trade

Marine shells and imitations appear widely:
– Natural cowries (from distant coasts)
– Bone, stone, and shell replicas
– Found at Erlitou, Qilipu, Zhengyao, and other sites

While their exact economic role remains debated, these shells demonstrate:
– Connections reaching beyond the Central Plains
– Possible early value storage systems
– Emerging social stratification (as prestige goods)

Conclusion: The Erlitou Legacy

The Erlitou culture’s material achievements laid foundations for Chinese civilization:
1) Agricultural Intensification: Diversified crops and storage systems supported urban growth
2) Bronze Revolution: Established ritual vessel tradition central to later dynasties
3) Craft Specialization: Set standards for jade, lacquer, and textile production
4) Technological Transfer: Wheeled transport and metallurgy continued into Shang period

Ongoing excavations continue to reveal surprises—like the 2019 discovery of a sprawling Erlitou-period turquoise workshop—ensuring this ancient culture remains at the forefront of China’s archaeological research. As the probable heartland of the semi-legendary Xia dynasty, understanding Erlitou’s material culture brings us closer to the historical realities behind China’s earliest recorded traditions.