The Dawn of Intensive Farming in Ancient China

Agriculture formed the backbone of ancient civilizations across the world, and China’s experience proved no exception. As Friedrich Engels observed, agriculture served as the decisive production sector throughout the ancient world. In the Chinese context, this truth manifested powerfully during the Qin and Han periods (221 BCE-220 CE), when farming practices reached unprecedented levels of sophistication.

China’s agricultural journey began over ten thousand years ago with the first cultivated rice, followed by millet and foxtail millet cultivation eight thousand years ago. Through the Neolithic period and the Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou dynasties, farming techniques gradually evolved. The Eastern Zhou period witnessed the emergence of intensive farming as the dominant agricultural approach, characterized by meticulous land preparation, careful crop selection, and efficient water management.

The Qin and Han dynasties marked a watershed moment in this agricultural evolution. The establishment of a unified, multi-ethnic empire under centralized authority created conditions for agricultural advancement. Government policies actively promoted farming development, leading to the maturation of traditional agricultural technologies and triggering what scholars recognize as a new peak in China’s agricultural productivity.

Archaeological Windows into Han Dynasty Farming

Modern understanding of Qin and Han agriculture owes much to archaeological discoveries beginning in the 1950s. Excavations at sites like the Han Dynasty Henan County town in Luoyang, the Sandaohao settlement in Liaoyang, and the Shaogou Han tombs in Luoyang unveiled a treasure trove of agricultural evidence. These findings included ancient crops, farming tools, agricultural depictions in art, and funerary models of farming equipment – materials far more abundant than from earlier periods.

The richness of Qin and Han agricultural archaeology extends across multiple categories:
– Physical remains: farming implements and crop remnants
– Visual records: stone reliefs, brick carvings, and murals depicting farming scenes
– Written accounts: bamboo slips, inscriptions, and pottery markings
– Ceremonial objects: miniature models buried as grave goods

A landmark moment came in 1978 with the scientific analysis of plant and animal remains from Mawangdui Tomb No. 1 in Changsha. This interdisciplinary study ushered in a new phase of agricultural archaeology. The 1981 launch of the journal Agricultural Archaeology further stimulated research, leading to significant advances in understanding Han farming practices. Historians increasingly incorporated these archaeological findings into their work, creating a more comprehensive picture of early Chinese agriculture.

The Staple Crops That Fed an Empire

By the Qin and Han periods, China had developed a diverse and regionally adapted agricultural system focused on staple crops often referred to as the “Five Grains.” Archaeological evidence, including both written records and physical remains, reveals seven principal crops that formed the dietary foundation of ancient China.

### Millet: The Yellow River’s Gift

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica), known as su or “valley seed,” served as the premier crop of the Yellow River basin. Archaeological finds demonstrate its widespread presence:
– Western Han tombs in Xianyang contained pottery urns filled with millet
– Luoyang’s Shaogou Han tombs yielded numerous grain storage vessels labeled “10,000 dan of millet”
– Frontier forts along the Great Wall recorded millet as their most common grain in administrative documents

Remarkably, millet remains have been found far beyond its core cultivation zone – from Xinjiang in the northwest to Guangdong in the south. While some southern finds may represent transported goods, bamboo slips from Hubei confirm local millet cultivation in the Yangtze region during this period.

### Broomcorn Millet: The Hardy Alternative

Broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), called shu for its sticky varieties, offered advantages over foxtail millet – shorter growing seasons and greater drought resistance. Archaeological evidence, though less abundant than for foxtail millet, confirms its importance:
– Western Han tombs in Xianyang contained pottery vessels with broomcorn millet remains
– Luoyang burial sites featured storage jars labeled “10,000 dan of broomcorn millet”
– Frontier documents from Juyan frequently mention this crop in grain distribution records

### Wheat: The Rising Star

Wheat cultivation, introduced to China around 2000 BCE, expanded significantly during the Han period thanks to improved irrigation and milling technology. Archaeological finds paint a vivid picture:
– Murals in Qin-era Xianyang palaces depict wheat ears
– Han tombs across the Yellow River valley contained labeled wheat stores
– Administrative records from Jiangsu province document over 100,000 qing (about 1.5 million acres) of winter wheat cultivation

The government actively promoted wheat farming, and by the Han dynasty, it had become the second most important crop in northern China after millet.

### Rice: The Southern Sustenance

With a cultivation history stretching back ten millennia, rice dominated agriculture south of the Yangtze. Han period discoveries include:
– Well-preserved rice spikes in Hubei province tombs
– Carbonized rice grains from numerous southern sites
– Administrative records detailing rice varieties and processing methods

Interestingly, rice cultivation expanded northward during this period, with evidence of paddy fields as far north as present-day Beijing. The Han governor Zhang Kan famously introduced rice cultivation to the Beijing area using irrigation from the Chaobai River.

### Soybeans: The Versatile Legume

Called shu in ancient texts, soybeans provided essential protein to the Han diet. While archaeological finds are less common than for major grains, evidence includes:
– Labeled soybean containers in Shaanxi tombs
– Administrative records specifying soybean planting rates
– Rare physical remains from elite burials like Mawangdui

Agricultural writer Fan Shengzhi actively promoted soybean cultivation during the Western Han, recognizing their nutritional and soil-enhancing properties.

### Sorghum: The Controversial Crop

The presence of sorghum in Han agriculture has sparked scholarly debate, but archaeological evidence confirms its cultivation:
– Carbonized sorghum from Liaoning settlement sites
– Grain storage models labeled “liang mi” (sorghum rice)
– Actual sorghum remains in Shaanxi and Shanxi tombs

This drought-resistant crop became particularly important in northern and northwestern regions.

### Hemp: The Declining Staple

While hemp seeds remained a food source, their dietary importance waned during the Han period. Evidence includes:
– Labeled hemp seed containers in Shaanxi burials
– Administrative records mentioning hemp cultivation
– Physical remains in southern tombs like Mawangdui

Regional Patterns and Agricultural Diversity

The Qin and Han periods saw the crystallization of distinct agricultural zones based on climate and geography:
– Yellow River region: millet and wheat dominant, with significant rice and soybean production
– Yangtze region: rice cultivation paramount, with supplementary millet and wheat
– Northwest highlands: drought-resistant millet and sorghum
– Southern frontiers: tropical rice varieties with some millet

Analysis of 45 grain storage vessels from Shaanxi tombs reveals the northern crop mix: 44% foxtail millet, 29% broomcorn millet, and 11% soybeans. Meanwhile, southern sites show predominance of japonica rice in earlier periods, with indica varieties becoming more common by the Eastern Han.

Legacy of Han Agricultural Achievements

The agricultural system perfected during the Qin and Han dynasties established patterns that would endure for millennia. Key innovations included:
– Regional specialization based on environmental conditions
– Government policies actively promoting farming
– Technological advances in irrigation and food processing
– Development of diverse crop varieties for different needs

This agricultural foundation supported China’s demographic growth, economic expansion, and cultural flourishing during one of its most dynamic historical periods. The crops and techniques developed then would continue to shape Chinese farming until the modern era, demonstrating the remarkable durability of Han agricultural achievements.