The Mediterranean Powder Keg

By 49 BCE, the Mediterranean world stood divided between two titans of the Roman Republic: Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Gaius Julius Caesar. This political duopoly extended far beyond Italy’s borders, with the eastern Greek world particularly indebted to Pompey’s influence. The Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt, Cleopatra VII and her brother-husband Ptolemy XIII, maintained special obligations to the Roman general. Their father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, had lived in exile in Rome, and the Roman general Aulus Gabinius—once a follower of Pompey—had restored him to power. This complex web of patronage and obligation meant that cities throughout the eastern Mediterranean needed either extraordinary diplomatic skill or remarkable luck to navigate the coming storm. The wrong allegiance could mean destruction, while timely pragmatism might secure survival.

The Flight of a Titan

The decisive Battle of Pharsalus in August 48 BCE shattered Pompey’s military ambitions. His devastating defeat forced him to flee toward Egypt, where he hoped to find refuge and support. The Ptolemaic kingdom had previously sent ships to aid Pompey’s followers, and he expected sanctuary from the young rulers. However, Egypt itself stood divided by civil war. Cleopatra had been driven from Alexandria by her brother’s advisors and had raised an Arab army in the eastern desert to reclaim her throne. Ptolemy XIII had established his camp near Pelusium to block her return. When Pompey sought to come ashore, he appealed to the thirteen-year-old king and his council of advisors—the eunuch Pothinus, the rhetorician Theodotus, and the general Achillas.

These three men faced a terrible calculation. As the Roman poet Lucan would later dramatize in his Pharsalia, welcoming Pompey meant making an enemy of Caesar. They chose to bet on the victorious general rather than the defeated one. Their cynical motto, reportedly, was “dead men don’t bite.” Accordingly, they arranged for Pompey’s murder as he approached shore in a small boat on September 28, 48 BCE. This treacherous act would later earn Ptolemy XIII a place in Dante’s Inferno alongside history’s great betrayers.

Caesar’s Arrival and Unexpected Intervention

Three days after Pompey’s murder, on October 1, 48 BCE, Caesar arrived in Alexandria with a small contingent of troops. Rather than expressing gratitude for the elimination of his rival, the Roman leader displayed outrage at the treatment of a distinguished consular. As a sitting Roman consul, Caesar entered the city with his lictors and established himself in the royal palace. He declared his intention to settle the royal dispute according to the will of Ptolemy XII Auletes, who had placed his children’s joint rule under the protection of the Roman people. Citing this legal authority—however tenuous—Caesar positioned himself as guardian and arbiter, demanding that both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII disband their armies and submit to his judgment.

Cleopatra, recognizing her weaker position, immediately complied. Separated from her army, she needed to reach Caesar in Alexandria despite her brother’s control of the city. The most famous account of her arrival comes from Plutarch, who describes how the twenty-one-year-old queen had herself smuggled into the palace wrapped in a bedroll . Whatever the precise details, her dramatic appearance before Caesar proved masterful. The Roman general, described by historian Cassius Dio as particularly susceptible to feminine charms, found himself captivated by the intelligent and charismatic young queen. Her presence forced her brother’s advisors to action.

The Outbreak of Hostilities

Pothinus, still in the palace, began working against Caesar even as he brought Ptolemy XIII back to Alexandria. The Roman commander had demanded immediate payment of 3,000 talents that Auletes had promised for Roman support. This financial pressure exacerbated tensions between Caesar and the Egyptian ministers. Pothinus began stirring anti-Roman sentiment among Alexandria’s volatile population, encouraging attacks on isolated Roman soldiers and disrupting supplies to Caesar’s limited forces.

When Pothinus decided the time had come for open confrontation, he summoned Achillas and the Egyptian army from Pelusium to Alexandria. Thus began the Alexandrian War, one of the most remarkable military engagements in Caesar’s career. The Roman commander had come to Egypt with minimal forces—only 3,200 infantry and 800 cavalry—to pursue Pompey. He now faced a professional Egyptian army of 22,000 infantry in a hostile city of nearly 500,000 inhabitants.

The Battle for Alexandria

Caesar found himself in an extraordinarily vulnerable position. His small fleet was docked in the Great Harbor, accessible to the open sea only through a narrow passage between the Lochias promontory and the Pharos island with its famous lighthouse. The Egyptian fleet of 72 ships—among the finest in the eastern Mediterranean—occupied the Eunostos Harbor. Always aggressive, Caesar took immediate action by setting fire to the Egyptian fleet. The flames spread to warehouses containing Egypt’s two principal exports: grain and papyrus scrolls. The destruction of approximately 40,000 scrolls would later be misremembered as the burning of the Great Library of Alexandria, though the library likely suffered only peripheral damage.

To secure his position, Caesar needed to control the heights of Pharos and Lochias, where Egyptian artillery threatened his ships. He also required reinforcements, which would take months to arrive. What followed was a six-month urban conflict fought street by street, building by building through the magnificent Hellenistic city. Caesar and his men fought not only the Egyptian army but also an increasingly hostile populace in a city known for its violent mobs.

The Tide Turns

The conflict reached its climax when Caesar attempted to seize Pharos Island. During the assault, his troops came under heavy attack and were forced to retreat. Caesar himself had to swim to safety after his boat became overloaded with soldiers. Despite this setback, the Roman commander maintained his characteristic aggression, launching counterattacks whenever possible.

The turning point came when Caesar’s reinforcements finally arrived. Mithridates of Pergamum, a loyal ally, marched from Syria with relief forces. Caesar broke out of Alexandria to join them, and together they defeated the Egyptian army at the Battle of the Nile in March 47 BCE. Ptolemy XIII attempted to flee but drowned in the river, allegedly weighed down by his golden armor.

Aftermath and Reconciliation

With her brother dead, Cleopatra became the undisputed ruler of Egypt, though Roman tradition required she marry her younger brother Ptolemy XIV. Caesar remained in Egypt for several months, famously cruising the Nile with the queen before departing to address other crises in the Roman world. Their relationship produced a son, Caesarion, who would later play a tragic role in Rome’s final conquest of Egypt.

The Alexandrian War had profound consequences for both Egypt and Rome. Caesar’s intervention marked the effective end of Egyptian independence, though the Ptolemaic dynasty would continue for another two decades. For Rome, the conflict demonstrated both the extent of Roman power and its potential vulnerabilities when commanders acted without full senatorial approval.

Cultural Legacy and Historical Memory

The Alexandrian War entered historical memory through multiple literary traditions. Caesar’s own account, The Alexandrian War , provides a military perspective focused on tactics and logistics. Greek historians like Plutarch and Cassius Dio emphasized the personal drama, particularly the relationship between Caesar and Cleopatra. Later Roman poets, especially Lucan, moralized about the conflict as an example of ambition and treachery.

The image of Cleopatra arriving wrapped in a carpet became one of the most enduring scenes from classical antiquity, representing both feminine ingenuity and the dramatic intersection of personal and political realms. The supposed burning of the Library of Alexandria, though historically inaccurate, became a powerful symbol of cultural destruction that continues to resonate in modern discourse about the preservation of knowledge.

Modern Relevance

The Alexandrian War remains relevant as a case study in military logistics, urban warfare, and cross-cultural conflict. Caesar’s ability to maintain his position against overwhelming odds in a hostile city demonstrates remarkable leadership and tactical flexibility. The conflict also illustrates the complex interplay between civil war and imperial expansion, as Roman internal disputes spilled over into foreign territories.

The relationship between Caesar and Cleopatra has fascinated generations, inspiring countless works of art, literature, and film. Their story represents both the attraction and the perils of cross-cultural engagement, as well as the personal dimensions of political power. The war also highlights the role of information and misinformation in historical memory, as the actual events became embellished and transformed in later retellings.

Ultimately, the Alexandrian War represents a pivotal moment in the transition from Roman Republic to Empire. Caesar’s actions in Egypt demonstrated the increasingly personal nature of Roman power and the willingness of commanders to intervene in foreign affairs without official sanction. The conflict paved the way for the eventual Roman annexation of Egypt and the final end of the Hellenistic Age, marking a significant step in the creation of the Mediterranean world that would characterize the Roman Empire.