The Fragile State of Eastern Jin
The Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420) was a period of precarious survival for Chinese rule in the south after the catastrophic loss of northern territories to non-Han peoples. Following the fall of Luoyang in 311 and Chang’an in 316, the Jin court fled south, establishing its capital at Jiankang (modern Nanjing). This relocation marked the beginning of a divided China, with the north controlled by successive non-Han regimes collectively called the Sixteen Kingdoms.
The southern aristocracy, while maintaining claims to the Mandate of Heaven, became increasingly comfortable with their exile existence. The Yangtze River provided a natural defensive barrier, and the fertile Jiangnan region offered economic prosperity. However, the political landscape was fraught with tension between the imperial court and powerful military governors who controlled frontier armies.
Huan Wen’s Rise and First Northern Expedition
Huan Wen (312–373) emerged as a dominant military figure following the disgrace of Yin Hao in 354. Yin’s failed northern campaign had exposed the court’s military incompetence, creating an opportunity for Huan to demonstrate his capabilities. Just one month after Yin’s dismissal, Huan launched his first expedition against the Di-led Former Qin regime in Guanzhong.
The 354 campaign saw Huan’s forces achieve tactical successes, reaching Bashang near the old Western Han capital. Local Han Chinese populations welcomed Jin troops with offerings of oxen and wine, tearfully exclaiming they “never expected to see imperial soldiers again.” While the expedition didn’t topple Former Qin, it proved Jin forces could still fight effectively—a significant psychological victory.
The Symbolic Recapture of Luoyang
Huan’s second campaign in 356 targeted the Qiang leader Yao Xiang in Henan. His victory at the Battle of Yishui allowed the recapture of Luoyang, the Jin dynasty’s original capital that had been lost for over forty years. This achievement carried immense symbolic weight, temporarily boosting southern morale and legitimizing Huan’s political position.
The conquest prompted Huan to propose relocating the capital back to Luoyang—a move that exposed fundamental tensions. While rhetorically appealing as a restorationist gesture, practical considerations made it untenable. Luoyang remained dangerously exposed, and moving the court would place the emperor entirely under Huan’s military protection, effectively making him the power behind the throne.
Sun Chuo’s Cunning Opposition
The court’s dilemma found expression through Sun Chuo (314–371), a famous litterateur with a controversial reputation. Despite his self-proclaimed eremitic ideals (memorialized in his “Returning to First Principles Rhapsody”), Sun actively participated in politics when convenient. His literary talents made him the perfect spokesperson for aristocratic resistance.
Sun’s memorial opposing the move masterfully blended practical arguments with classical references:
“The late Emperor Yuan could establish his reign not merely through heavenly mandate, but by relying on the natural barrier of the Long River… Now the Central Plain has been devastated for sixty years. The common people are nearly extinct, with less than one in a hundred surviving… Those of us who fled south have lived here for generations. The old who longed for northern homes lie buried in orderly graves. While we sigh when the north wind blows, our present sorrows are more pressing.”
This sophisticated argument allowed the court to reject Huan’s proposal without appearing unpatriotic, suggesting instead that a general should first fully pacify the north before the emperor’s return. Huan’s irritated response—mocking Sun’s hypocrisy in abandoning his eremitic ideals—masked a strategic retreat.
The Third Expedition and Poignant Reflections
Huan’s final campaign in 369, launched when he was nearly sixty, carried profound personal symbolism. Passing through Jinling (modern Nanjing suburb), he encountered willow trees he had planted decades earlier as a young administrator. The sight of these now-massive trees inspired one of Chinese history’s most famous laments:
“The trees have grown like this, how can humans withstand [the passage of time]?” Clutching the branches, he shed tears.
This poignant moment, recorded in Shishuo Xinyu, captures the intersection of personal ambition and historical inevitability. The third expedition ultimately failed due to supply problems and enemy scorched-earth tactics, marking the end of serious Jin attempts to recover the north.
Legacy of the Northern Expeditions
Huan Wen’s campaigns represent the last significant efforts by Eastern Jin to reconquer the north. Their failure confirmed the dynasty’s transformation into a permanently southern regime, with profound cultural consequences:
1. Political: The expeditions demonstrated the court’s dependence on regional military leaders while revealing its unwillingness to risk its comfortable southern existence. This tension would eventually lead to Huan’s son Huan Xuan briefly usurping the throne.
2. Cultural: The debates surrounding the Luoyang relocation crystallized southern aristocratic identity—comfortable with their exile status yet maintaining nostalgic claims to northern heritage. Sun Chuo’s arguments presaged the eventual development of a distinct southern Chinese cultural identity.
3. Literary: The campaigns produced enduring cultural memories, from Huan’s willow tree lament to Sun’s sophisticated political rhetoric. These became part of the Shishuo Xinyu tradition that shaped later perceptions of the Eastern Jin period.
Huan Wen remains a complex figure—neither a simple loyalist nor a pure opportunist. His campaigns, while ultimately unsuccessful, reveal the Eastern Jin dynasty’s fundamental contradictions: a regime that claimed legitimacy through northern recovery but lacked the will to achieve it, producing one of Chinese history’s most fascinating political and cultural eras.