Introduction: A Crossroads of Ancient Civilizations

Northern China during the Xia (c. 2070-1600 BCE) and Shang (c. 1600-1046 BCE) dynasties formed a fascinating cultural mosaic where diverse regional traditions interacted with the expanding Central Plains civilization. This vast territory encompassing the Jinzhong region of central Shanxi, the southern Ordos Plateau of Inner Mongolia, and the highlands along the Shanxi-Shaanxi border developed distinctive archaeological cultures that maintained both local characteristics and connections with broader East Asian cultural spheres.

The Jinzhong Region: Cultural Continuity and External Influences

### Archaeological Discoveries and Research History

The Jinzhong region’s archaeological exploration began in the 1950s with discoveries near Taiyuan. Over four decades, researchers identified more than twenty sites containing Xia-Shang period remains, including:
– Taiyuan area: Guangshe, Xutan, Dicun, Dongtaipu
– Central Shanxi: Taigu Baiyan, Xinzhou Youyao
– Western Shanxi: Fenyang Xinghuacun, Yudaobe, Beiyuandi

Scholars have proposed various cultural designations for these finds – “Guangshe Culture,” “Baiyan Culture,” “Dongtaipu Culture” – reflecting ongoing debates about their classification and relationship to Central Plains cultures.

### Cultural Phases and Characteristics

The Jinzhong cultural sequence divides into two major phases:

Phase I (Late Xia to Early Shang)
Represented by Youyao’s “late remains” and Baiyan Period IV, this phase shows:
– Pottery dominated by cord-marked gray ware
– Distinctive vessel forms: li tripods, jia tripods, egg-shaped weng urns
– Architectural remains including semi-subterranean houses and dome-shaped cave dwellings
– Burial practices with simple pit graves containing few offerings

The pottery reveals strong continuity from local Longshan traditions while incorporating elements from Erlitou and early Shang cultures to the south.

Phase II (Middle to Late Shang)
Best seen at Baiyan Period V and Xinghuacun sites, this period witnessed:
– Increased Shang cultural influence in li tripod forms and ritual vessels
– Emergence of hybrid “intermediate-type” li tripods
– New influences from the Lüliang Mountain region
– More complex burial practices including coffin use and dog sacrifices

The material culture shows a fascinating blend of indigenous traditions with Shang and northern frontier elements.

The Ordos Region: The Jartai Culture

### Discovery and Distribution

First identified in the 1960s but properly recognized after 1974 excavations at Jartai in Inner Mongolia, this culture’s distribution spans:
– East: Dali Lake region
– West: Ordos Plateau interior
– North: Yin Mountains foothills
– South: Reaching the Yan River system

Over 20 excavated sites reveal a culture adapted to the steppe environment while maintaining agricultural components.

### Material Culture Characteristics

Settlements:
– Semi-subterranean and surface-level structures
– Rectangular single-room dwellings predominating
– Some multi-room “Lü-shaped” complexes

Pottery:
– 90% gray ware with cord and basket patterns
– Distinctive “snake pattern” appliqué decoration
– Three-legged vessels including various li tripod forms

Bronze Technology:
– Early small ornaments (bracelets, rings)
– Later weapons (daggers, knives) showing northern steppe influences
– Rare Central Plains-style ritual vessels

Burial Practices:
– Pit graves with gendered burial patterns
– Some cases of apparent sacrificial burial
– Animal bone offerings (especially pigs)

### Cultural Chronology

The Jartai culture developed through four phases:
1. Early Phase: Retaining Longshan characteristics
2. Middle Phase: Increased bronze production
3. Late Phase: Growing social complexity
4. Final Phase: Strong Shang influence in elite goods

The culture’s disappearance around the late Shang coincides with the emergence of new cultural patterns in adjacent regions.

The Shanxi-Shaanxi Highlands: The Lijiaya Culture

### Bronze Age Discoveries

Since the 1930s, spectacular bronze hoards have been found along the Yellow River borderlands, including:
– Shaanxi: Qingjian, Suide, Yanchuan
– Shanxi: Shilou, Baode, Liulin

These finds feature:
– Classic Shang ritual vessels
– Distinct northern-style weapons and tools
– Hybrid forms blending both traditions

### The Lijiaya Culture

Excavations at Lijiaya in Shaanxi revealed:
– A fortified settlement with sophisticated defenses
– Residential areas and possible ritual structures
– Pottery combining local and Shang characteristics
– Evidence of bronze production

Cultural characteristics include:
– Dominance of gray cord-marked pottery
– Distinctive high-collared li tripods
– Egg-shaped weng urns
– Curved stone knives

### Cultural Origins and Legacy

The Lijiaya culture appears to derive from Jartai culture traditions while incorporating new elements. Its material culture shows:
– Continuity in pottery forms from earlier northern cultures
– Adaptation of Shang bronze technology
– Development of distinctive local styles

This culture represents the flourishing of a northern bronze tradition during the late Shang period.

Cultural Interactions and Historical Significance

### Relations with Central Plains Cultures

These northern cultures maintained complex relationships with Xia and Shang civilizations:
– Early Erlitou influences reaching northward
– Shang bronze technology and ritual concepts adopted selectively
– Northern cultural elements appearing in Shang border regions

### Connections with Northern Steppe Cultures

Simultaneously, these cultures participated in broader Eurasian exchanges:
– Shared metallurgical techniques across northern zones
– Similar weapon and tool types appearing widely
– Possible population movements reflected in material culture changes

### Historical Significance

These archaeological cultures represent:
– The northern expansion of East Asian bronze age societies
– Development of specialized pastoral-agricultural adaptations
– Formation of cultural traditions that influenced later northern dynasties

Their study illuminates the complex processes of cultural interaction that shaped early Chinese civilization.

Conclusion: Northern Cultural Dynamics

The Xia-Shang period northern cultures demonstrate remarkable resilience and adaptability. While maintaining distinctive local traditions, they selectively incorporated elements from both the Central Plains and the northern steppes. The archaeological record reveals not simple peripheries to “central” civilizations, but vibrant cultural spheres that actively participated in broader East Asian developments. These northern cultures laid foundations for later historical patterns of interaction between agrarian and pastoral societies in East Asia.