The Rise of Lu State in Early Zhou Dynasty

Nestled between the Zhu and Yi rivers in modern Shandong province, the ancient capital of Lu State stood as a vital eastern stronghold of the Zhou dynasty. Established as a fiefdom for Bo Qin, eldest son of the legendary Duke of Zhou, Lu played a crucial role in extending Zhou influence into eastern territories during the 11th century BCE. The strategic location of Qufu – with hills to the southeast and plains to the northwest – made it an ideal administrative center that connected the Zhou heartland with eastern regions.

Archaeological investigations between 1977-1978 revealed the impressive scale of the Lu capital, with systematic surveys and test excavations mapping out the city’s chronology, layout, and urban planning. Subsequent excavations in 1981 uncovered thirty additional tombs, providing remarkable insights into the social and cultural dynamics of this important Zhou vassal state.

The Dual Burial Traditions of Lu’s Population

Excavations at Qufu revealed two distinct types of Western Zhou period tombs, designated as Group A and Group B, which tell a fascinating story of cultural coexistence:

Group A tombs showcase characteristics linking them to Shang traditions:
– Wider burial pits with waist pits containing sacrificed dogs
– Southern orientation of the deceased
– Grave goods placed between head and coffin
– Distinctive ceramic vessels including li tripods, dou stemmed dishes, and gui tureens
– Concentrated in Yaopu and “Doujitai” burial grounds

Group B tombs represent Zhou cultural practices:
– Narrower pits without waist pits or dog sacrifices
– Northern orientation of the deceased
– Use of decorative bronze fish and clam shell ornaments
– Ceramic assemblage dominated by bronze-style li tripods
– Found primarily in the “Wangfutai” cemetery

This clear spatial and cultural separation suggests these were distinct ethnic communities maintaining their own burial traditions within Lu State.

Cultural Identity and Ethnic Composition

The archaeological evidence paints a vivid picture of Lu’s multicultural society:

Group A tombs demonstrate strong connections to:
– Shang culture (through waist pits and dog sacrifices)
– Local Dongyi traditions (through ceramic forms)
– Possible “Six Clans of Yin” mentioned in historical texts

Group B tombs show unmistakable links to:
– Zhou cultural practices from Shaanxi heartland
– Typical Western Zhou burial customs
– Colonist communities from western regions

The separate burial grounds indicate these groups maintained distinct identities while coexisting under Lu’s administration, providing physical evidence of the Zhou policy of “governing through local customs” while establishing Zhou cultural outposts.

Chronological Developments in Lu’s Burial Practices

Archaeologists have identified three phases in both tomb groups:

Group A chronology:
1. Early Western Zhou (comparable to Shang styles)
2. Middle Western Zhou (developing local characteristics)
3. Late Western Zhou (increasing Zhou influences)

Group B chronology:
1. Middle Western Zhou (established Zhou practices)
2. Late Western Zhou (flourishing of local Zhou styles)
3. Western Zhou-Early Spring and Autumn transition

Scholarly debates continue regarding precise dating, with some researchers arguing for later chronology based on ceramic typology and bronze styles.

The Liu Taizi Site: A Window on Regional Connections

The Liu Taizi cemetery in neighboring Shandong reveals another facet of regional culture:
– Excavations uncovered five tombs with rich grave goods
– M6 stood out as the largest, containing 21 bronze ritual vessels
– Inscriptions suggest connection to the ancient Feng state
– Evidence of cultural exchanges between Lu and neighboring polities

Notable finds included:
– Sets of bronze ding tripods and gui tureens
– Jade ornaments indicating high-status female burial
– Possible royal connections through inscribed bronzes

Comparative Analysis with Other Zhou Period Sites

The Lu tombs share intriguing parallels with contemporary sites:

Baoli Yu State Cemetery:
– Shows similar Zhou cultural adaptation patterns
– Reveals complex clan organization through burial groupings
– Demonstrates multicultural influences in material culture

Lingtai Hei State Tombs:
– Features comparable bronze ritual sets
– Shows similar elite burial practices
– Provides evidence of regional state interactions

Jingyang Ge State Cemetery:
– Displays analogous clan burial arrangements
– Contains similar bronze vessel combinations
– Illustrates shared Zhou period mortuary customs

The Enduring Legacy of Ancient Lu

The archaeological remains of Lu State offer profound insights into early Chinese civilization:
1. Cultural Integration: Demonstrates Zhou strategies for governing diverse populations
2. Technological Exchange: Reveals sharing of bronze casting techniques across regions
3. Social Organization: Provides evidence of coexisting ethnic communities
4. Historical Continuity: Links to Confucius’ later association with Lu

Modern significance:
– Qufu’s recognition as UNESCO World Heritage Site
– Ongoing research illuminating early Chinese state formation
– Cultural resource for understanding Zhou dynasty expansion

The tombs of ancient Lu stand as silent witnesses to a pivotal era when the Zhou dynasty consolidated its rule over diverse territories, creating the cultural foundations that would shape Chinese civilization for millennia. Through careful archaeological investigation, we continue to uncover new chapters in this remarkable story of cultural encounter and transformation.