From Frontier Warriors to Imperial Bureaucracy

Mehmed II, known to history as “the Conqueror,” envisioned a radically new Islamic empire that would surpass even Byzantium in its grandeur. His vision required more than military conquest—it demanded the complete transformation of governance structures that had served the early Ottoman state. The semi-independent frontier societies ruled by gazi beys, which had formed the bedrock of Ottoman expansion, now needed integration into a centralized imperial framework.

This transformation birthed a theocratic military state resembling Byzantium at its height. Through an elaborately organized bureaucracy, the sultan exercised absolute power, systematically eliminating any potential challenges to his authority. Mehmed institutionalized practices like royal fratricide, declaring: “Whichever of my sons inherits the sultan’s throne, it is fitting for the order of the world that he should kill his brothers.”

The Machinery of Absolute Power

The grand vizier became the sultan’s chief administrator rather than an independent power center. In a symbolic break with nomadic traditions, Mehmed stopped regularly attending the imperial council (Divan), observing proceedings instead through a latticed window in what became known as the “Sultan’s Eye.” This innovation reportedly stemmed from an incident where a Turkmen commoner barged into council demanding to see “the happy emperor.”

The vizierial system rested on “Four Pillars of Empire,” a concept rooted in both military tradition and Islamic symbolism:
1. The grand vizier (bearing a five-horsetail standard)
2. Two kadi-askers (military judges for Anatolia and Rumelia)
3. Four defterdars (finance ministers)
4. The nishanjis (imperial secretaries who authenticated documents with the tughra seal)

Legal Revolution: From Sharia to Kanun

Mehmed’s Kanun-name (Law Code) marked a pivotal departure from traditional Islamic governance. While maintaining sharia as the supreme law, this secular legal system addressed the practical needs of governing a vast, multi-ethnic empire. Drawing on Turkish rather than purely Islamic traditions, it codified:
– Administrative hierarchies
– Ceremonial protocols
– Official responsibilities
– Organizational structures
– Reward and punishment systems

The legal framework acknowledged three binding authorities beyond the sultan’s decrees: the Quran, sunna (prophetic traditions), and rulings of the first four caliphs. Yet Mehmed asserted his right as padishah to legislate independently of religious scholars—though major policies required approval through fatwas from the grand mufti.

Byzantine Echoes in Ottoman Pageantry

Imperial ceremonies displayed striking Byzantine influence, particularly from Emperor Constantine VII’s Book of Ceremonies. Mehmed instituted elaborate dress codes signaling rank:
– Viziers wore green
– Palace attendants wore scarlet
– Religious scholars wore specific hues (white for muftis, violet for ulema, sky blue for mollas)

Headgear became potent social markers—only Muslims could wear turbans, while non-Muslims wore colored caps (red, black or yellow). Footwear colors also distinguished religious communities, with Greeks, Armenians and Jews wearing black, violet and blue shoes respectively.

The Palace as Power Nexus

Mehmed’s Topkapi Palace (begun 1465) embodied his imperial vision. Built on Constantinople’s ancient acropolis, its design facilitated both governance and the sultan’s seclusion. The complex featured:
– Three monumental gates
– Two vast courtyards
– Numerous pavilions
– Lavish gardens described by contemporary historian Critoboulos as containing “every imaginable tree and fruit”

The palace’s division into public (Birun) and private (Enderun) spheres established an enduring model for Ottoman governance. The Imperial Gate’s inscription proclaimed Mehmed as “God’s shadow on earth, sovereign of two seas and two continents.”

The Slave Elite: Meritocracy in a Dynastic Empire

Mehmed perfected the devshirme system, creating a non-hereditary ruling class of converted Christians. This “slave household” included:
– Grand viziers
– Provincial governors
– Military commanders
– Tax collectors

The palace school rigorously trained these recruits in:
– Languages (Turkish, Arabic, Persian)
– Mathematics
– History
– Military arts
– Vocational skills

A 16th century Italian observer noted graduates emerged “literate, eloquent, courteous and virtuous.” Remarkably for the era, 80% of grand viziers came through this meritocratic system.

Military-Feudal Hybrid: The Timar System

Provincial administration revolved around military needs. The empire divided into:
– Two beylerbeyliks (Anatolia and Rumelia)
– 48 sanjaks (20 Asian, 28 European)
– Thousands of timar fiefs

Timar holders (sipahi cavalry) maintained troops in exchange for land revenues—a system creating “fragmented ownership” between state, soldier and peasant. Unlike European feudalism, these fiefs weren’t hereditary. By Mehmed’s death, over 40,000 sipahis formed the empire’s backbone.

Economic Foundations of Conquest

Revenue streams included:
– Jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims)
– Tithes on Muslim produce
– Tribute payments
– State monopolies
– Customs duties (raised to 20% for Europeans)

Mehmed stimulated commerce by improving infrastructure security after conquering Constantinople. Bursa emerged as a global entrepôt for:
– Persian silk
– Indian spices
– Anatolian minerals
– European woolens

Renaissance Sultan or Medieval Conqueror?

Despite employing Italian artists like Gentile Bellini and collecting classical manuscripts, Mehmed remained fundamentally medieval in outlook. His cultural patronage favored Persian over Western influences, though he:
– Composed Turkish poetry
– Sponsored historians
– Maintained multilingual libraries
– Consulted astrologers before campaigns

Health problems—possibly exacerbated by poisoning attempts—plagued his later years. He died in 1481 during a military campaign, aged just 49.

Legacy of the Lawgiver

Though his territorial gains proved modest, Mehmed created enduring imperial structures that:
– Synthesized Byzantine and Islamic governance
– Established bureaucratic meritocracy
– Balanced centralization with provincial flexibility
– Funded military expansion through economic innovation

As the architect of Ottoman statecraft, Mehmed transformed a frontier principality into an empire destined to endure for centuries—a true heir to Rome and Byzantium. His systems outlasted dynasties, adapting to preserve Ottoman power until the modern era.