The Roots of Conflict: Trade Imbalance and Imperial Ambitions
The mid-19th century witnessed a dramatic clash between China’s traditional world order and Western imperial ambitions. Following the First Opium War (1839-1842), Western powers, particularly Britain, expected vast commercial opportunities in China. However, their hopes quickly faded as Chinese self-sufficient rural economies resisted foreign manufactured goods while British opium imports continued to dominate trade. From 1843 to 1855, British industrial exports to China showed negligible growth, frustrating British merchants and politicians alike.
This economic stagnation occurred against the backdrop of China’s internal crisis – the devastating Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) that consumed Qing military resources. Western powers saw China’s vulnerability as an opportunity to expand their privileges. Britain, fresh from victory in the Crimean War (1853-1856) against Russia, now turned its military might toward China, joined by France seeking to protect Catholic missionaries and expand its own influence.
The “Arrow” Incident: A Pretext for War
In October 1856, Chinese authorities in Guangzhou boarded the lorcha Arrow, a Chinese-owned vessel flying a British flag, arresting several Chinese sailors suspected of piracy. British consul Harry Parkes seized this minor incident, falsely claiming the Chinese had insulted the British flag (though the Arrow’s registration had actually expired). When Governor-General Ye Mingchen returned most prisoners but refused full apology, Britain launched military action.
On October 23, 1856, British Admiral Michael Seymour bombarded and captured Guangzhou’s river forts. The poorly defended city fell quickly, though British forces soon withdrew, awaiting reinforcements. This marked the opening salvo of what became known as the Arrow War or Second Opium War.
Internationalizing the Conflict: The Allied Invasion
By 1857, Britain and France formed a formal alliance, with James Bruce, Earl of Elgin and Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros appointed as plenipotentiaries. They were joined by American and Russian diplomats who, while not militarily involved, provided political support. In December 1857, a combined Anglo-French force of 5,000 troops launched a devastating assault on Guangzhou, capturing the city and taking Ye Mingchen prisoner. The hapless governor was exiled to India where he died in captivity.
The allies then turned north, capturing the Dagu Forts near Tianjin in May 1858, forcing the Qing to sign the Treaty of Tianjin. These agreements contained sweeping new concessions:
– Foreign diplomatic residence in Beijing
– Ten additional treaty ports including Nanjing and Hankou
– Freedom of movement for missionaries and merchants
– Legalized opium trade
– Indemnities totaling 6 million silver taels
The Road to Beijing: Burning of the Summer Palaces
When Qing forces unexpectedly defeated an Anglo-French attempt to force the Dagu Forts in 1859, the allies returned in 1860 with overwhelming force – 18,000 British and 7,000 French troops. After landing at Beitang and winning battles at Tanggu and Zhangjiawan, they decisively defeated Qing forces at Baliqiao on September 21, 1860, opening the road to Beijing.
As Emperor Xianfeng fled to Rehe, British and French troops entered the capital’s outskirts. In retaliation for the imprisonment and alleged mistreatment of Anglo-French prisoners (including diplomat Harry Parkes), British High Commissioner Lord Elgin ordered the destruction of the Yuanmingyuan (Old Summer Palace). Over three days of systematic looting and burning, allied troops destroyed one of China’s greatest cultural treasures – a calculated act of cultural vandalism meant to demonstrate Western power and humiliate the Qing court.
The Treaty of Beijing and Territorial Consequences
With Beijing occupied, Prince Gong was forced to sign the Convention of Beijing in October 1860, which:
– Added Tianjin as a treaty port
– Legalized foreign recruitment of Chinese laborers
– Ceded Kowloon Peninsula to Britain
– Guaranteed missionary property rights
– Increased indemnities to 16 million taels
Most significantly, Russia exploited China’s weakness to extract massive territorial concessions through the “mediation” of diplomat Nikolay Ignatyev. The 1858 Treaty of Aigun and 1860 Treaty of Beijing ceded over 1.44 million square kilometers north of the Amur and east of the Ussuri rivers – an area larger than France and Germany combined. Further treaties in 1861-1864 demarcated boundaries that cost China additional territory in Central Asia.
Legacy and Historical Significance
The Arrow War marked a critical juncture in China’s 19th century decline:
1. Institutionalized Foreign Privileges: The treaties established foreign legal and economic privileges that undermined Qing sovereignty for decades.
2. Accelerated Internal Crisis: The war diverted resources from suppressing the Taiping Rebellion while demonstrating Qing military weakness.
3. Psychological Impact: The burning of Yuanmingyuan became a national trauma, symbolizing China’s humiliation by Western powers.
4. Territorial Losses: Russia’s acquisitions fundamentally altered Northeast Asia’s geopolitical landscape.
5. Reform Movements: The shock of defeat contributed to the eventual Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s-1890s.
This conflict revealed the complete failure of the Qing dynasty’s traditional approach to foreign relations while demonstrating Western powers’ willingness to use overwhelming force to achieve their commercial and political objectives in China. The memory of these events continues to influence Chinese views of the West and perceptions of international relations to this day.