Introduction: The Power of Names in Ancient Thought

In the intellectual ferment of the Warring States period, one of the most profound philosophical questions concerned the relationship between names and reality. Among the vibrant debates of the Hundred Schools of Thought, no thinker addressed this issue with greater systematic rigor than Xunzi. His essay “On the Correct Use of Names” represents the most comprehensive treatment of linguistic philosophy in early China, presenting a sophisticated theory that connects language, social order, and political stability. This examination of naming conventions was not merely an academic exercise but a vital concern for maintaining harmony in human society.

Xunzi lived during the 3rd century BCE, a time of political fragmentation and intense philosophical competition. As a Confucian thinker, he inherited concerns about social harmony and proper governance, but developed these ideas with unprecedented logical precision. His work on naming emerged from this context, offering both a philosophical framework and practical guidance for rulers seeking to establish lasting order.

The Political Necessity of Correct Naming

Xunzi begins his discussion with a striking political claim: the proper establishment of names is fundamental to effective governance. He argues that when names are fixed, reality becomes distinguishable, and when principles are implemented, intentions become communicable. This connection between linguistic precision and social order forms the cornerstone of his philosophy.

For Xunzi, the careful maintenance of naming conventions represents the foundation of long-term political stability. He observes that every new dynasty must both follow existing names and create new ones appropriate to its circumstances. This dual approach acknowledges the tension between tradition and innovation that characterizes periods of political transition. The wise ruler understands that names are not merely labels but instruments of social coordination and hierarchical maintenance.

The political dimension of naming becomes particularly evident when Xunzi discusses the consequences of linguistic confusion. Those who manipulate language or create misleading terminology he condemns as “great villains,” comparing their offense to forging official tallies or weights and measures. Such linguistic corruption leads to popular confusion, disputes, and ultimately social disorder. The proper control of language thus becomes a matter of state security.

The Three Sources of Established Names

Xunzi provides specific guidance for rulers seeking to establish appropriate naming conventions. He identifies three primary sources from which contemporary rulers should draw their terminology, each serving different aspects of governance.

First, penal names should follow the Shang dynasty. This recommendation acknowledges the Shang’s sophisticated legal system and suggests that certain aspects of governance benefit from historical continuity. By adopting established legal terminology, rulers tap into centuries of juridical wisdom while providing familiar frameworks for administering justice.

Second, titles of nobility should follow the Zhou system. The Zhou dynasty had developed an elaborate hierarchy of aristocratic ranks and official positions that structured the social order. Xunzi’s recommendation here reflects his conservative approach to social stratification, recognizing that clearly defined status distinctions contribute to political stability.

Third, ceremonial names should follow the Rites. This refers to the complex system of ritual propriety documented in classical texts, which governed everything from religious observances to interpersonal conduct. For Xunzi, the preservation of ritual terminology helps maintain the behavioral norms that undergird social harmony.

For all other names pertaining to the myriad things, Xunzi recommends following the established customs and common agreements of the Central States. This pragmatic approach acknowledges language as a social phenomenon that evolves through usage and consensus. Even regions with different customs could use these standardized names for communication, facilitating cultural exchange and administrative unity.

The Psychology of Human Nature and Naming

Xunzi extends his linguistic analysis to human psychology, developing a sophisticated terminology for describing mental and emotional phenomena. This section represents one of the most detailed psychological theories in early Chinese thought, connecting his philosophy of language to a comprehensive understanding of human nature.

He begins with innate endowment, that which is born so of itself, which he terms nature. This natural endowment arises from the harmony of vital forces and involves the spontaneous response of the senses when encountering external things. Xunzi’s conception of human nature as fundamentally sensory and reactive establishes a material foundation for his psychological theory.

From this natural endowment emerge the emotions: liking, disliking, joy, anger, grief, and pleasure. These affective responses constitute our basic orientation toward the world. When these emotions become active and the mind makes choices among them, this process constitutes thought. Xunzi thus presents a sequence from spontaneous reaction to deliberate cognition.

The mind’s deliberations lead to action through the human capacity, which Xunzi terms conscious activity. Through accumulated thought and practiced ability, these conscious activities become established patterns of behavior. This developmental perspective highlights how human nature can be shaped through education and habit formation—a crucial point for Xunzi’s ethical theory.

He further distinguishes between different types of action: those done for proper benefit he calls business affairs, while those done for moral duty he calls virtuous conduct. This distinction reflects the Confucian concern with properly motivated action and acknowledges the legitimate place of both practical and ethical considerations in human life.

Xunzi completes his psychological terminology with definitions of knowledge, wisdom, ability, skill, sickness, and fate. Each term receives precise definition based on his naturalistic framework, creating a comprehensive vocabulary for discussing human experience.

The Dangers of Linguistic Confusion

Having established his system of correct naming, Xunzi turns to the problem of linguistic corruption. He identifies several contemporary thinkers whose theories he believes create dangerous confusion about the relationship between names and reality.

The Songzi school, with its doctrine of indiscriminate affection, threatened traditional moral distinctions by suggesting that all people deserve equal concern. The Mohists, with their utilitarian approach to language, reduced complex ethical concepts to simple calculations of benefit. The logicians like Gongsun Long and Hui Shi engaged in clever paradoxes that separated names from their conventional meanings. Even the Daoists like Zhuangzi, with their relativistic perspective, undermined the possibility of fixed moral judgments.

Against these diverse challenges, Xunzi insists on the importance of unifying around proper standards. He argues that the sage kings established names precisely to create shared understanding and facilitate social coordination. When thinkers manipulate language for clever effect or philosophical novelty, they damage this communal function.

Xunzi’s concern extends beyond academic debate to practical consequences. When people cannot rely on shared meanings, communication breaks down, disputes multiply, and social trust erodes. The ruler who permits such linguistic confusion risks losing the ability to govern effectively, as commands become ambiguous and standards become contested.

The Social Function of Proper Naming

The ultimate purpose of Xunzi’s linguistic philosophy becomes clear in his discussion of social effects. When names are properly established and consistently used, the people become honest and easily governed. This ease of governance then produces public benefit, creating a virtuous cycle of social harmony.

Xunzi describes a population that dares not resort to strange terminology to confuse correct names. This linguistic conformity produces behavioral conformity, as people uniformly follow laws and carefully observe commands. The result is long-lasting achievement and ultimate perfection in government—all accomplished through careful maintenance of naming conventions.

This connection between linguistic precision and social order reflects Xunzi’s distinctive approach to Confucianism. While sharing the traditional concern with moral cultivation, he emphasizes the institutional frameworks that make virtue possible. Proper naming represents one such framework, creating the conditions for ethical behavior through clear communication and shared understanding.

The social function of naming extends to the maintenance of hierarchy, another Confucian priority. Xunzi explicitly states that names serve to clarify the noble and the humble above, and to distinguish similarities and differences below. This dual function ensures both social stratification and practical categorization, addressing both political and epistemological needs.

Comparative Perspectives on Ancient Linguistic Philosophy

Xunzi’s work on naming invites comparison with other ancient traditions that explored the relationship between language and reality. In Greece, Plato’s Cratylus addressed similar questions about whether names reflect nature or convention. In India, the Mimamsa school developed elaborate theories about the relationship between words and their meanings.

Unlike Plato’s speculative approach, Xunzi focuses resolutely on the social and political dimensions of language. His concern is not with metaphysical correspondence but with practical communication and governance. Unlike the Indian emphasis on ritual precision, Xunzi balances conventional agreement with conscious reform, acknowledging both the historical development of language and the ruler’s responsibility to shape it.

This comparative context highlights what is distinctive about Xunzi’s approach: his integration of linguistic philosophy with political theory, his concern with psychological terminology, and his pragmatic orientation toward social harmony. These features make his work not only a contribution to philosophy of language but also to political science and psychology.

Legacy and Contemporary Relevance

Xunzi’s theory of naming has influenced Chinese thought for over two millennia. During the Han dynasty, his approach informed the standardization of terminology and the establishment of Confucian orthodoxy. Later scholars continued to reference his work when discussing the relationship between words and meanings, though often with greater emphasis on metaphysical questions.

In contemporary terms, Xunzi’s insights anticipate several modern concerns about language and society. His recognition that linguistic confusion produces social disorder finds echo in discussions of political discourse and media representation. His attention to the psychological dimensions of terminology anticipates modern philosophy of mind and cognitive science.

Most importantly, Xunzi reminds us that language is not merely a tool for description but an instrument of social coordination. The clarity of our terminology affects the quality of our communication, which in turn influences our ability to cooperate and govern ourselves effectively. In an age of information overload and contested meanings, his call for careful attention to naming conventions remains profoundly relevant.

The art of naming, as Xunzi understood it, is ultimately about creating a world we can share through words. By establishing clear distinctions and maintaining consistent usage, we build the linguistic common ground that makes community possible. This insight represents perhaps his most enduring contribution to our understanding of language, society, and human flourishing.